Organizational Change

Introduction 1 State of the Art 3 Weaknesses in Current Approaches to Change Implementation 4 A Stakeholder Theory Perspective 7 Highlight Box 1: Hershey Builds a Community 9 A Communication Perspective 12 Cases of Organizational Change 14 Ingredients Incorporated 14 Spellings Commission on Higher Education 15 Conclusion 18 1 Defining Organizational Change 20 The Role of Communication in Triggering Change 21 Failure in Change 24 What Is Organizational Change? 25 Drive‐thru Diffusion 27 Communication, Social Pressure, and Diffusion 28 Highlight Box 1.1: The Malcolm Baldrige Award 30 Implementation 31 Understanding Key Terms 32 A Complex Model of Innovation, Diffusion, Adoption,and Implementation 34 Case Box 1.1: Ingredients Inc. Experiences Overlapping Changes 37 Types of Organizational Change 37 Complexity of Change Within Organizations 42 Interdependence 42 Structures 44 Politics 46 Case Box 1.2: Spellings Commission Political Positions Play a Role 48 Conclusion 49 2 Processes of Communication During Change 53 Formal Communication 54 Case Box 2.1: Spellings Commission – Responses to Change Announcement 55 Informal Communication 55 Importance of Communication 56 Communication Processes 57 Information Dissemination and Uncertainty 58 Common Practice Advice for Information Dissemination 62 Selecting Channels for Communicating Change 64 Case Box 2.2: Ingredients Inc. – Information Dissemination Campaigns 65 Informal Information Dissemination 66 Case Box 2.3: Spellings Commission – Stakeholders’ Informational Campaign 67 Creating Knowledge 68 Soliciting Input 69 Practice Advice for Seeking Input 70 Voice and Empowerment 70 Design of Input Solicitation 73 Categorizing Approaches to Input Solicitation 76 Perspectives of Input Providers 79 Stakeholders’ Input Solicitation 81 Case Box 2.4: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input from Each Other 82 Socialization 83 Case Box 2.5: Homeless Net Resists Altering Role Schema 87 Conclusion 88 3 A Stakeholder Communication Model of Change 94 Stakeholder Theory 95 Highlight Box 3.1: HUD As a Definitive Stakeholder for Agencies Serving Homeless Populations 99 Case Box 3.1: Homeless Net Implementation of Listserv Increases Awareness of Stakeholders 100 Complicating Stakeholder Relationships 102 Multiple Stakeholder Identities 104 Highlight Box 3.2: IT Reskilling Case Study – How Stakeholder Groups View Change Differently 107 Stakeholder Interactions 108 Highlight Box 3.3: Upton Sinclair Sets off Stakeholder Advocacy to Clean up Meat Packing Factories 109 Roles Stakeholders Play in Change 110 Opinion Leaders 110 Connectors 111 Counselors 112 Journalists 114 Highlight Box 3.4: Examples of “Alt” US Government 115 Stakeholder Model of Implementation of Change 115 Outcomes 116 Stakeholders’ Concerns, Assessments, and Interactions 117 Communication Strategies 117 Antecedents 119 Model Overview 119 Conclusion 120 4 Outcomes of Change Processes 126 The Importance of Goals 127 Assessing Change Outcomes 128 Timing of Assessing Outcomes 129 Assessing Outcomes from Multiple Perspectives 129 Difficulty of Metrics of Success 131 Case Box 4.1: Homeless Net Struggles to Assess a Large Mission 132 Attribution Errors 133 Documenting Failure 135 Highlight Box 4.1: March of Dimes Succeeds to the Brink of Organizational Death 136 Assessing Change Outcomes 137 Fidelity and Uniformity 138 Organizational Goals 141 Authenticity 141 Assessing Results of Change 143 Case Box 4.2: Ingredients Inc. – Foreknowledge and Change Burnout 145 Causes for Implementation Failures and Successes 146 Conclusion 150 5 Communication Approaches and Strategies 156 Uniformity, Fidelity, and Models of Implementation 159 Communication Strategy Dimensions 162 Dissemination/Soliciting Input 162 Highlight Box 5.1: Gap’s Campaign for Cultural Transformation 163 Highlight Box 5.2: CEO of Lego Transforms Co.Through Widespread Empowerment Strategy 165 Case Box 5.1: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input and Disseminate Information 167 Sidedness 168 Case Box 5.2: One‐ and Two‐Sided Messages from Spellings Stakeholders 171 Reluctance to Acknowledge Negatives 172 Highlight Box 5.3: Companies Use Euphemisms to Avoid Saying “Layoffs” 173 Gain or Loss Frame 175 Targeted or Blanket Messages 177 Case Box 5.3: Memo to Ingredients Inc. 178 Case Box 5.4: Official Statement by the Department of Education on Spellings Commission Report 179 Discrepancy and Efficacy 181 Channels for Communicating 183 Conclusion 185 6 Power and Resistance 191 Power During Organizational Change 192 Case Box 6.1: Spellings Commission’s Latent Power Recognized 195 Bases of Power 196 Case Box 6.2: Homeless Net Recognizes Expertise Power of Implementers 197 Meaning‐Centered Approach to Power 198 Balances of Power 199 Highlight Box 6.1: JAR Technologies Experiences Concertive Control 202 Resistance During Change 202 Thinking Patterns that Explain Managers’ “Resistance” Focus 203 Highlight Box 6.2: Defensive Routines in Implementing Strategy 205 What Is Resistance? 205 Forms of Resistance 208 Highlight Box 6.3: Mice Don’t Overanalyze Change 210 Dispositional Resistance 216 Value of Resistance 218 The Facebook Example 219 Highlight Box 6.4: Moving Cheese Might Require Thoughtful Consideration 221 Conclusion 221 7 Antecedents to Strategies, Assessments,and Interactions 227 Institutional Factors 229 Implementers’ Perceptions of Change Context 232 Assessing Stakeholders and Stakeholder Values 232 Case Box 7.1: Reactions of Powerful Stakeholders 235 Assessing Needs for Consensus‐Building 236 Assessing Needs for Efficiency 237 Assessing Individual and Organizational Change History and Readiness 238 Case Box 7.2: History as Prologue? Spellings Report Triggers Comparisons to NCLB 239 Assessing Goals for Change 240 Case Box 7.3: Flip‐Flopping on Anticipation of Change 241 Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Change Context 242 Case Box 7.4: Discrepancy Messages Overplayed 244 Case Box 7.5: Supporting Stakeholders through Change 246 Conclusion 248 8 Stakeholder Interactions: Storying and Framing 253 Creating Stories and Storylines That Make Sense 255 Highlight Box 8.1: How We Make Stories 255 Case Box 8.1: Threads of Merger Stories 257 Highlight Box 8.2: Story of Bad Treatment 258 Making Stories 258 Case Box 8.2: Varying Stories About What Was Announced as Change 259 Framing 260 Frames Tell Stories from a Perspective 260 Interactional Frames 261 Contesting and Resisting Stories and Frames 262 Highlight Box 8.3: Attempts at Framing 263 “Managing Meaning” 264 How Non‐Managerial Stakeholders “Manage Meaning” 265 Stories and Frames Create, Maintain, and Resolve Concerns 265 Concerns about Process or Substance of Change 268 Creating and Resolving Alliances, Rivalries, and Schisms 270 Highlight Box 8.4: Terse Telling 271 Highlight Box 8.5: “We Don’t Want It Either” 272 Highlight Box 8.6: Reframing and Resistance 273 Which Stories and Frames Matter? 274 Highlight Box 8.7: Social Sensemaking Sets Up Material Disappointment 276 Conclusion 277 9 Applying the Model in Practice 281 Activity Tracks 282 Managing Meaning 283 Managing Networks 283 Managing Practice 284 Keeping Track of the “Tracks” 284 Stakeholders Must Manage Activity Tracks 285 Preview of Chapter and Case Introduction 286 Tools for Managing Activity Tracks 286 Monitoring and Articulating Goals 286 Highlight Box 9.1: Virtual Problems 287 Developing Strategic Messages and Strategic Communication Plan 291 Analysis of Input 294 Influencing Implementation Climate 297 Myths about Implementing Planned Change 299 Conclusion 302 Glossary 304 Index 315