ECOLOGICAL SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS Unleash the natural power and adaptability of forests with this cutting-edge guide
For generations, silvicultural systems have focused largely on models whose primary objective is the production of timber, leading to drastically simplified forests with reduced ecological richness, diversity, and complexity. Ecological silviculture, by contrast, focuses on producing and maintaining forests with “all their parts”—, that is, with the diversity and flexibility to respond
and adapt to global changes. Ecological silviculture seeks to emulate natural development models and sustain healthy forests serving multiple values and goals.
Ecological Silvicultural Systems provides a comprehensive introduction to these approaches and their benefits tailored to diverse types of forests, designed for forest management professionals. It provides a series of exemplary models for ecological silviculture and surveys the resulting forest ecosystems. The result is a text that meets the needs of professionals in forestry and
natural resource management with an eye towards sustaining healthy forest ecosystems, adapting them to climate change, protecting them from invasive species, and responding to changing market forces.
Ecological Silvicultural Systems readers will also find:
Detailed treatment of forest ecosystems in North America, Europe, South America, and Australia A broad field of contributors with decades of combined expertise on multiple continents Discussion of pine woodlands; temperate hardwood forests, boreal forests, temperate rainforests, and more
Ecological Silvicultural Systems is a useful reference for professional foresters, wildlife habitat managers, restoration ecologists, and undergraduate and graduate students in any of these fields.
List of Contributors xv Preface xviii Acknowledgments xix 1 The Context of Ecological Silviculture 1 Brian J. Palik and Anthony W. D’Amato 1.1 What Is Ecological Silviculture? 1 1.2 How Does Ecological Silviculture Differ from Classical Commodity- Focused Silviculture? 2 1.3 Why Is Ecological Silviculture Needed? 2 1.4 What Are the Foundational Concepts of Ecological Silviculture? 3 1.5 What to Expect from the Chapters that Follow? 8 References 8 2 Ecological Silviculture for Great Lakes Red Pine Ecosystems 11 Brian J. Palik and Anthony W. D’Amato 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Characteristics of Red Pine Ecosystems 11 2.2.1 Composition and Structure 11 2.2.2 Natural Disturbance Regime 13 2.2.3 Natural Development Model 14 2.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 14 2.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 14 2.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 15 2.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 15 2.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 15 2.2.3.6 The Cycle of Disturbance and Development 16 2.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Red Pine Ecosystems 16 2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 17 2.3.2 Preforest Stage 17 2.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 19 2.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Later) 19 2.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 20 2.3.6 Old Forest Stage 21 2.3.7 Natural- Origin Stands Versus Plantations 21 2.4 Climate Change Considerations 22 2.5 Summary 22 References 23 3 Ecological Silviculture for Northern Hardwood Ecosystems of Northeastern U.S. 25 Anthony W. D’Amato 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Characteristics of Northern Hardwood Ecosystems 26 3.2.1 Composition and Structure 26 3.2.2 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 28 3.2.3 Natural Development Model 28 3.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 29 3.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 29 3.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 30 3.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 30 3.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 30 3.2.4 The Cycle of Disturbance and Development 30 3.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Northern Hardwood Ecosystems 31 3.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 31 3.3.2 Preforest Stage 31 3.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 34 3.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Later) 34 3.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 34 3.3.6 Old Forest Stage 36 3.4 Climate Change Considerations 36 3.5 Summary 37 References 38 4 Ecological Silviculture in Douglas- fir–Western Hemlock Ecosystems 40 Abraham Wheeler, Jerry F. Franklin, and Stephanie J. Wessell 4.1 Introduction 40 4.2 Characteristics of Douglas- fir–Western Hemlock Ecosystems 41 4.2.1 Tree Species Composition 41 4.2.2 Natural Disturbance Regime and Developmental Model 41 4.2.2.1 Natural Disturbance 41 4.2.2.2 Preforest Stage 41 4.2.2.3 Young Forest Stage 42 4.2.2.4 Mature Forest Stage 42 4.2.2.5 Old Forest Stage 42 4.3 Essential Elements of an Ecological Silvicultural System for Douglas-fir–Western Hemlock Ecosystems 42 4.3.1 Landscape Context 43 4.3.2 Special Features 43 4.3.3 Spatial Heterogeneity 43 4.3.4 Structural Retention 43 4.3.5 Species Diversity 43 4.3.6 Limited Use of Chemicals 44 4.3.7 Regeneration Approaches 44 4.3.8 Silvicultural System 44 4.3.8.1 Emulating Natural Disturbance 44 4.3.8.2 Long Recovery Periods 46 4.3.8.3 Large, Open Harvest Areas 46 4.3.8.4 Ecological Thinning 46 4.3.9 Ecological Silvicultural Tradeoffs 47 4.4 Real- World Application of an Ecological Silvicultural System for the DF-WH Ecosystem 48 4.5 Climate Change Considerations 48 4.6 Summary 51 References 51 5 Ecological Silviculture for Longleaf Pine Woodlands in the Southeastern U.S. 53 Steven B. Jack, Benjamin O. Knapp, and R. Kevin McIntyre 5.1 Introduction 53 5.2 Characteristics of Longleaf Pine Ecosystems 54 5.2.1 Natural History 54 5.2.2 Natural Disturbance 54 5.2.3 Composition and Structure 55 5.3 Development Model 57 5.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 58 5.3.2 Preforest Stage 58 5.3.3 Young Forest Stage 58 5.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 58 5.3.5 Old Forest Stage 59 5.4 Prevailing Silvicultural Systems 59 5.5 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Longleaf Pine 59 5.5.1 Ecological Silviculture to Maintain Mature Forests 61 5.5.2 Ecological Silviculture for Restoration 61 5.6 Climate Change Considerations 63 5.7 Summary 64 References 64 6 Ecological Silviculture for Southeastern US Pine-Oak Forests 67 Justin L. Hart, J. Davis Goode, and Daniel C. Dey 6.1 Introduction 67 6.2 Characteristics of Pine- Oak Ecosystems 67 6.2.1 Silvics of Common Species 68 6.2.2 Disturbance Ecology 70 6.3 Development Model 71 6.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 71 6.3.2 Preforest Stage 71 6.3.3 Young Forest Stage 72 6.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 72 6.3.5 Old Forest Stage 73 6.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Pine- Oak Ecosystems 73 6.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 75 6.4.2 Preforest Stage 76 6.4.3 Young Forest Stage 77 6.4.4 Mature Forest Stage 77 6.4.5 Old Forest Stage 78 6.5 Climate Change Considerations 78 6.6 Summary 78 References 79 7 Ecological Silviculture for Lowland Wet Conifer Forest Lake States 81 Marcella A. Windmuller-Campione, Laura F. Reuling, Robert A. Slesak, and Randy K. Kolka 7.1 Overview 81 7.2 Glacial History 82 7.3 Plant Community Composition 83 7.4 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 84 7.4.1 Stand- Replacing Disturbance 84 7.4.2 Gap Dynamics 86 7.5 Silvics of Black Spruce and Eastern Larch 86 7.6 Current/Conventional Silvicultural Approaches 88 7.7 Natural Development Model for Lowland Conifer Ecosystems 89 7.7.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 89 7.7.2 Preforest Stage 89 7.7.3 Young Forest Stage 89 7.7.4 Mature Forest Stage and Old Forest Stage 89 7.8 Ecological Silviculture System 90 7.8.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 91 7.8.2 Preforest Stage and Young Forest Stages 91 7.8.3 Mature Forest Stage and Old Forest Stages 91 7.9 Climate Changes Impact on Lowland Conifer Ecosystems 92 7.10 Summary 92 References 94 8 Ecological Silviculture for Southern Appalachian Hardwood Forests 98 Jodi A. Forrester, Tara L. Keyser, and David K. Schnake 8.1 The Southern Appalachian Mixed- Oak Forests 98 8.2 Contemporary Forests of the Southern Appalachians 99 8.3 Structure, Composition, and Development of the Southern Appalachian Mixed-Oak Ecosystem 101 8.3.1 Structure and Composition 101 8.3.2 Natural Development Model 103 8.4 Regenerating Upland Oak Forests in the Southern Appalachians 104 8.5 An Ecologically Based Silvicultural System for Mixed- Oak Ecosystems 105 8.5.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 105 8.5.2 Preforest Stage 106 8.5.3 Young Forest Stage 107 8.5.4 Mature Forest Stage 107 8.5.5 Old Forest Stage 108 8.6 Climate Change Considerations 108 8.7 Summary 108 References 109 9 Ecological Silviculture for Yellow Birch–Conifer Mixedwoods in Eastern Canada 112 Patricia Raymond and Daniel Dumais 9.1 Introduction 112 9.2 Characteristics of Yellow Birch–Conifer Mixedwoods 112 9.2.1 Species Composition 112 9.2.2 Structure 115 9.2.3 Historical Natural Disturbance Regime 115 9.2.4 Natural Development Model 116 9.2.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 119 9.2.4.2 Young Forest Stage 120 9.2.4.3 Mature Forest Stage 120 9.2.4.4 Old Forest Stage 120 9.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Yellow Birch–Conifer Mixedwoods 120 9.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 120 9.3.2 Young Forest Stage 121 9.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 123 9.3.4 Old Forest Stage 123 9.4 Climate Change Considerations 124 9.5 Summary 124 Acknowledgments 125 References 125 10 Ecological Silviculture of Black Spruce in Canadian Boreal Forests 128 Miguel Montoro Girona, Martin Alcala Pajares, and Maxence Martin 10.1 Introduction 128 10.2 Characteristics of Black Spruce Forests 128 10.2.1 Distribution and Composition 128 10.2.2 Climate, Soil, and Topography 130 10.3 Black Spruce Forest Types 130 10.3.1 Black Spruce–Feathermoss Forests 130 10.3.2 Black Spruce–Lichen Forests 130 10.3.3 Black Spruce–Dwarf Shrub Forests 131 10.4 Developmental Model for Black Spruce Forests 131 10.5 Emulating Natural Dynamics of Black Spurce Forests with Sivliculture 135 10.5.1 Clear-cutting as Tool to Emulate High-severity Wildfire 135 10.5.2 Thinning to Restore Complex Structures 135 10.5.3 Diameter-Limit Cuts to Emulate Secondary Disturbances of High Severity 136 10.5.4 Shelterwoods to Emulate Moderate- Severity Secondary Disturbances 136 10.5.5 Selection Harvests to Emulate Low- Severity Disturbances and Background Mortality 137 10.6 Summary 138 References 138 11 Ecological Silviculture for Acadian Forests 141 Robert S. Seymour 11.1 Introduction and Context 141 11.2 Ecological Characteristics 141 11.3 Models of Disturbance and Stand Development 144 11.4 Restoration Challenges and Possible Pathways 148 11.5 Regeneration Treatments at the Mature Forest Stage 149 11.6 Silvicultural Systems Based on Natural Disturbance Parameters – The Acadian Femelschlag 149 11.6.1 Tending Gap Regeneration – The Young Forest Stage 150 11.6.2 Locating Skid Trails, Initial Gaps, and Reserve Trees 151 11.6.3 Results After 27 Years 151 11.7 Climate Considerations 153 11.8 Summary 153 References 153 12 Ecological Silviculture for Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Forests 156 Robert A. York 12.1 Introduction 156 12.2 Characteristics of Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Forests 157 12.2.1 The Disturbance Regime, Composition, and Structure 157 12.2.2 Current Silviculture in the Sierra Nevada MCF 158 12.2.2.1 Planted Forests 158 12.2.2.2 Partial Harvests 159 12.2.2.3 Fuel Treatments 159 12.3 Natural Development Model 160 12.3.1 Disturbance, Legacy Creation, and Preforest 160 12.3.2 Young Forest 161 12.3.3 Mature and Old Forest 162 12.4 An Ecological Silviculture System for Mixed Conifer Forests 163 12.5 Climate Change Considerations 164 12.6 Using the Natural Development Model to Alter Existing Systems 165 12.6.1 Planted Forests 165 12.6.2 Partial Harvests 166 12.6.3 Fuel Treatments 166 References 166 13 Ecological Silviculture for Aspen Mixedwoods in Western Canada 169 S. Ellen Macdonald, Philip G. Comeau, Charles A. Nock, and Brad D. Pinno 13.1 Introduction 169 13.2 Natural Disturbance and Successional Dynamics 170 13.3 Current Silvicultural Approaches 173 13.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Boreal Mixedwoods in Western Canada 173 13.4.1 Harvesting Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 174 13.4.1.1 Retention Harvesting 174 13.4.1.2 Understory Protection Harvesting 174 13.4.2 Regeneration Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 177 13.4.3 Tending Options for Boreal Mixedwoods Under Ecological Silvicultural Systems 178 13.5 Policy Challenges 178 13.6 Climate Change Considerations for Boreal Mixedwood Management 179 13.7 How Does This Bring Management Closer to Nature? 179 References 180 14 Ecological Silviculture for Interior Ponderosa Pine and Dry Mixed-Conifer Ecosystems 184 Andrew J. Larson and Derek J. Churchill 14.1 Introduction 184 14.2 Characteristics of Ponderosa Pine and Dry- Mixed Conifer Ecosystems 185 14.2.1 Composition and Structure 185 14.2.2 Disturbance Regime 186 14.2.3 Developmental Model 189 14.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for Ponderosa Pine and Dry- Mixed Conifer Ecosystems 189 14.3.1 Incorporating Prescribed Fire in Silvicultural Treatments 192 14.4 Example Applications of Ecological Silviculture in Contrasting Initial Conditions 193 14.4.1 High Density, Even-Aged 193 14.4.2 High Density, Multi-Cohort with Abundant Fire- and Drought-Tolerant Species 194 14.4.3 High-Density Lacking Healthy Trees of the Desired Species 194 14.4.4 Recent Moderate- or High-Severity Wildfire 195 14.4.5 Low Density, Multi-Cohort 196 14.5 Climate Change Considerations 196 14.6 Summary 197 References 197 15 Ecological Silviculture for North American Pacific Coastal Temperate Rainforests 199 Justin S. Crotteau, William J. Beese, John-Pascal Berrill, Robert L. Deal, Constance A. Harrington, and Kellen N. Nelson 15.1 Introduction 199 15.2 Characteristics of Temperate Rainforest Ecosystems 200 15.2.1 Tree Composition, Size, and Age Structure 200 15.2.2 Natural Disturbances and Stand Development 201 15.2.3 Developmental Model 201 15.2.3.1 Preforest Stage 202 15.2.3.2 Young Forest Stage 202 15.2.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 202 15.2.3.4 Old Forest Stage 202 15.3 An Ecological Silvicultural System for the Temperate Rainforest 202 15.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 204 15.3.2 Preforest Stage 204 15.3.3 Young Forest Stage (Early) 207 15.3.4 Young Forest Stage (Late) 207 15.3.5 Mature Forest Stage 208 15.3.6 Old Forest Stage 209 15.4 Climate Change Considerations 209 15.5 Summary 210 Acknowledgments 211 References 211 16 Ecological Silviculture for Oak Ecosystems of the Central Hardwoods Region, USA 213 Miranda T. Curzon and John M. Kabrick 16.1 Introduction 213 16.2 Characteristics of Central Hardwood Forests and Woodlands 214 16.2.1 Composition and Structure 214 16.2.2 Natural Disturbance 215 16.3 Natural Developmental Model 216 16.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 217 16.3.2 Preforest Stage 218 16.3.3 Young Stage 218 16.3.4 Mature Stage 218 16.3.5 Old Stage 218 16.4 Ecological Silvicultural Systems for Central Hardwoods Ecosystems 219 16.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 219 16.4.2 Preforest Stage 222 16.4.3 Young Stage 222 16.4.4 Mature Stage 223 16.4.5 Old Stage 224 16.5 Climate Change Considerations 224 16.6 Summary 225 Acknowledgments 226 References 226 17 Ecological Silviculture for Fennoscandian Scots Pine Ecosystems 229 Timo Kuuluvainen and Timo Pukkala 17.1 Introduction 229 17.2 Structure, Dynamics, and Composition of Scots Pine Ecosystems 231 17.3 Dead Standing Kelo Trees as a Key Component of Fennoscandian Pine Forests 232 17.4 Evolution of Ecological Silviculture of Scots Pine Forests 233 17.5 Toward Ecological Silviculture for Scots Pine in Fennoscandia 234 17.6 Reconciling Economic Profitability with Biodiversity: A Case Study Using Any-Aged Forestry 235 17.7 Ecological Silviculture in Fennoscandia: Policy Context and Future Prospects 239 17.8 Conclusions 240 References 241 18 Silvicultural Systems in the Mountain Ash Forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, South-eastern Australia 244 David B. Lindenmayer 18.1 Introduction 244 18.2 Ecosystem Characteristics 245 18.3 Prevailing Silvicultural Systems in Mountain Ash Forests 246 18.3.1 Clear-Cutting 246 18.3.2 Variable Retention Harvesting Systems 246 18.4 Natural Development Model and Silviculture 250 18.5 The Challenges for Mountain Ash Silviculture: Climate Change and Other Drivers 251 18.6 A New Silvicultural Model for Mountain Ash Forests 253 Acknowledgments 254 References 254 19 Ecological Silviculture for European Beech-Dominated Forest Ecosystems 257 Thomas A. Nagel, Miroslav Svoboda, Lucie Vítková, and Dušan Roenbergar 19.1 Introduction 257 19.2 Characteristics and Natural Dynamics of European Beech-Dominated Ecosystems 257 19.2.1 Composition 257 19.2.2 Disturbance Regime 259 19.2.3 Developmental Model 259 19.2.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 259 19.2.3.2 Preforest Stage 259 19.2.3.3 Young Forest Stage 260 19.2.3.4 Mature Forest Stage 261 19.2.3.5 Old Forest Stage 261 19.3 Conventional Silvicultural Approach 262 19.4 Ecological Silviculture for European Beech- Dominated Ecosystems 263 19.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 263 19.4.2 Preforest Stage 266 19.4.3 Young Forest Stage 266 19.4.4 Mature Forest Stage 267 19.4.5 Old Forest Stage 267 19.5 Climate Change Considerations 268 19.6 Summary 268 References 269 20 Ecological Silviculture for Chilean Temperate Rainforests 271 Pablo J. Donoso and Daniel P. Soto 20.1 Introduction 271 20.2 Characteristics of the Evergreen Forest Type (EFT) 272 20.2.1 Composition, Structure, and Growth 272 20.2.2 Forest Disturbance and Dynamics 273 20.2.3 Secondary Forest Development Following Human Disturbances 275 20.3 Natural Developmental Model 276 20.3.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 276 20.3.2 Young Forest Stage 276 20.3.3 Mature Forest Stage 276 20.3.4 Old Forest Stage 278 20.4 An Ecological Silvicultural System for the Chilean Hardwood- Dominated Evergreen Forest Type 279 20.4.1 Disturbance and Legacy Creation 279 20.4.2 Young Forest Stage 279 20.4.3 Mature Forest Stage 280 20.4.4 Old Forest Stage 280 20.5 Summary: Ecological Silviculture for Chilean Temperate Forests 281 Acknowledgments 282 References 282 21 The Place of Ecological Silviculture, Now and in the Future 286 Anthony W. D’Amato and Brian J. Palik 21.1 Introduction 286 21.2 A Diversity of Approaches for a Diversity of Forests 286 21.2.1 Commonalities Among Ecological Silvicultural Approaches 287 21.2.2 Differences Among Ecological Silvicultural Approaches 289 21.3 Conclusions 290 References 291 Index 292
Brian J. Palik, PhD, is a research ecologist with the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Grand Rapids, MN, USA. He has published widely on the ecological sustainability of managed forests and related fields. Anthony W. D’Amato, PhD, is Professor of Silviculture and Applied Forest Ecology and Director of the Forestry Program at the University of Vermont, USA. He has researched and published extensively on long-term forest dynamics and silvicultural strategies to foster adaptive forests.
