Underground Space

Contents CONTENTS        3 LIST OF FIGURES            17 LIST OF TABLES               24 PREFACE            25 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 27 1            INTRODUCTION TO UNDERGROUND SPACE USE         29 1.1         The meaning and connotation of “underground”?         29 1.2         What has changed since the first edition?         30 1.3         Why use underground space?  31 1.3.1     Key drivers for underground space use                32 1.3.1.1 Land Use Pressures      32 1.3.1.2 Topography and Barrier Crossings          35 1.3.1.3 Environment, Sustainability and Resiliency      36 1.3.1.4 Provision of infrastructure services and mobility           37 1.3.1.5 Harvesting mineral and energy resources          38 1.4         Can we use underground space more effectively?        39 1.4.1     Need for better planning of underground space              39 1.4.2     Valuing underground space      39 1.4.3     Ownership and administrative procedures       40 1.4.4     Initiation of underground developments             41 1.4.5     Organizational support and promotion                42 1.4.6     Technology advances   43 1.5         Underground space in culture and literature    43 1.6         The future of underground space development              44 1.6.1     Some visionary concepts           44 1.6.2     A future driven by needs and aspirations            47 1.6.3     A note of caution            48 1.7         Summary           48 1.8         Chapter 1 references   49 1.9         Bibliography of general books and information regarding underground space use and design 51 2             DECISION MAKING FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE         54 2.1         Introduction      54 2.2         Choosing to build underground               54 2.2.1     Identifying the possible alternatives     54 2.2.2     Potential benefits and drawbacks          55 2.2.3     Physical issues                57 2.2.3.1 Location             57 2.2.3.2 Isolation             57 2.2.3.3 Protection         60 2.2.3.4 Environment     64 2.2.3.5 Layout 65 2.2.4     Institutional issues        66 2.2.5     Life-cycle cost issues   66 2.2.5.1 Initial Cost/Land Cost Savings 66 2.2.5.2 Operating Cost/Maintenance  69 2.2.6     Societal issues 70 2.3         Common evaluation methodologies    73 2.3.1     Direct costs (initial and life cycle)          73 2.3.2     Indirect costs   74 2.3.3     Social costs      74 2.3.4     Indirect and social benefits       75 2.3.5     Triple bottom line analysis (TBL)              75 2.3.6     Life-cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA)    75 2.3.7     Service Cost Replacement Method (SCRM)      75 2.3.8     Willingness to pay          76 2.3.9     Real estate studies        76 2.3.10   Analytic network or hierarchy process (ANP or AHP)    77 2.4         Tricky questions for cost-benefit studies            77 2.4.1     What to include as a benefit?   77 2.4.2     Who pays, who benefits?           78 2.4.3     How to align benefits with costs?           78 2.5         Some typical construction and use comparisons          78 2.5.1     Tunnels vs surface or elevated alignments       79 2.5.2     Cut-and-cover versus bored tunnels    80 2.5.3     Trenchless technologies            80 2.5.4     Carbon footprint reduction       81 2.5.5     Life-cycle choices         81 2.6         Chapter 2 references   82 3             SUSTAINABILITY AND RESILIENCE ISSUES        87 3.1         Sustainability and resilience issues      87 3.2         The role of underground space 90 3.3         Resilience and vulnerability of underground facilities 93 3.3.1     Introduction      93 3.3.2     Resilience for military and civil defence             94 3.3.3     Resilience against natural hazards        95 3.3.4     Societal impacts of resilience related to underground infrastructure  96 3.3.5     Risks posed by underground infrastructure and facilities          97 3.4         Life safety          98 3.4.1     Challenges in life safety design in large underground facilities 98 3.4.2     Smoke control and ventilation systems              100 3.4.3     Structural fire resistance in tunnels and caverns           100 3.4.4     Structural fire resistance for underground buildings     100 3.4.5     Blast-resistant design  101 3.5         Protection for defence facilities              101 3.5.1     Exterior openings           101 3.5.2     Rock cover        102 3.5.3     Ground shock protection and dynamic support design               103 3.5.4     EMP protection, sensors and antennas               103 3.5.5     Ventilation and humidity control            104 3.5.6     Emergency power supply           104 3.6         Challenges and strategies for sustainable underground space development  104 3.6.1     Managing the complexity of underground space development               104 3.6.2     Justifying the cost          105 3.6.3     Geological input to planning     106 3.6.4     Supportive legal frameworks and policies         106 3.6.5     Appropriate safety standards for construction and use               107 3.6.6     Coordination and integration   108 3.6.7     Managing public perceptions and stakeholders             108 3.6.8     Time and timing              108 3.6.9     Assessing designs against sustainability and resilience goals 109 3.6.10   Combining underground excavation with space creation          110 3.7         Chapter 3 references   111 4             UNDERGROUND SPACE CLASSIFICATIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS 114 4.1         Introduction      114 4.2         Classification by function          115 4.3         Classification by geometry and scale   116 4.3.1     Fenestration     117 4.3.2     Depth   118 4.3.3     Project size       119 4.3.4     Building type/geographical extent         119 4.4         Other classifications/groupings              120 4.4.1     Origin   120 4.4.2     Site features     120 4.4.3     Project features              120 4.5         Typical configurations of underground openings             120 4.5.1     Natural cavities              120 4.5.1.1 Small-scale voids          121 4.5.1.2 Caves and caverns        121 4.5.1.3 Karst systems  122 4.5.2     Surface mining configurations 122 4.5.3     Underground mining configurations     124 4.5.4     Configurations for specific uses              127 4.6         CONFIGURATIONS APPLIED TO URBAN DESIGN          131 4.7         Chapter 4 References  135 5             HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT USE OF UNDERGROUND SPACE              136 5.1         INTRODUCTION             136 5.2         Underground Space Uses by Type          136 5.2.1     Residential Uses            136 5.2.2     Religious Uses 143 5.2.3     Recreation        145 5.2.3.1 Natural cave exploration and tourism  145 5.2.3.2 Sports facilities and community centers            146 5.2.3.3 Parks    148 5.2.4     Commercial and Institutional Uses      149 5.2.4.1 Integrated urban developments              149 5.2.4.2 Stations and intermodal facilities          151 5.2.4.3 Commercial and institutional buildings              152 5.2.4.4 Visitor/Interpretive centers and museums        152 5.2.4.5 Libraries             153 5.2.4.6 Office buildings               154 5.2.4.7 Educational institutions             155 5.2.4.8 Special use facilities    157 5.2.5     Industrial facilities        157 5.2.6     Military and defense facilities  158 5.2.7     Storage                159 5.2.7.1 Bulk storage of food       159 5.2.7.2 Oil and gas storage        161 5.2.7.3 Secure storage 162 5.2.8     Infrastructure uses        164 5.2.8.1 Introduction      164 5.2.8.2 Transportation 164 5.2.8.3 Transportation tunnels 165 5.2.8.4 Parking 167 5.2.8.5 Freight transport             167 5.2.8.6 Utility Systems 168 5.2.8.7 Water supply and sewage treatment    170 5.2.8.8 Waste disposal                171 5.2.8.9 Energy production and storage 172 5.2.8.10               Ground-coupled heat exchange systems           174 5.2.8.11               Integrated ground-coupled thermal systems   175 5.2.9     Mining and Resource Extraction             177 5.2.9.1 Mined space reuse        178 5.2.9.2 Agricultural uses            179 5.2.10   Miscellaneous uses      180 5.3         Discussion by geographical region        180 5.3.1     Introduction      180 5.3.2     Europe 181 5.3.2.1 Central Europe 181 5.3.2.2 Scandinavia and Iceland            181 5.3.2.3 UK and Ireland 182 5.3.2.4 Eastern Europe                182 5.3.3     Asia       183 5.3.3.1 East Asia (China, Hong Kong, Macao, Mongolia, Taiwan)            183 5.3.3.2 India     183 5.3.3.3 Japan and Korea             184 5.3.3.4 Singapore           184 5.3.3.5 Other    185 5.3.4     The Americas   185 5.3.4.1 North America 185 5.3.4.2 Central and South America       186 5.3.5     Oceania              187 5.3.6     Middle East and North Africa   188 5.3.7     Africa (except northernmost Africa)      188 5.4         Chapter 5 References  189 6             PLANNING ISSUES FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE         196 6.1         Introduction      196 6.2         Key aspects of undeground space planning      197 6.2.1     Piecemeal approaches and ad hoc solutions to urban problems           198 6.2.2     Recognizing the need for underground space planning               199 6.2.3     Integration into conventional planning activities            200 6.2.4     Optimizing the use of the subsurface   200 6.2.5     When to plan    201 6.2.6     Planning approaches may vary widely 202 6.2.7     Where to plan   203 6.2.8     Planning related to key drivers 205 6.2.8.1 Geographical – density, lack of surface space 205 6.2.8.2 Integrating aboveground and underground approaches              205 6.2.8.3 Geological – identifying resources and impacts             206 6.2.8.4 Topographical – creating better linkages             207 6.2.8.5 Weighing the balance – underground projects vs. the environment      207 6.2.8.6 Infrastructure systems - transportation, utility infrastructure, pedestrian, etc.               208 6.2.8.7 Balancing public and private interests 211 6.2.8.8 Current needs vs. future possibilities  212 6.3         The harmonious urban development of the surface and subsurface    213 6.4         Underground space development suitability and intensity       213 6.5         Legal issues and administrative controls           215 6.5.1     Land ownership and easements            215 6.5.2     Administrative controls and regulation 217 6.6         Other underground planning issues      218 6.7         Strategic and Master Planning 219 6.8         Chapter 6 references   220 7             URBAN UNDERGROUND SPACE PLANNING TOOLS AND CASE EXAMPLES     225 7.1         Evolution of Planning Efforts     225 7.2         Tools for integrated planning and development              229 7.3         Tools for three-dimensional spatial zoning of the underground               231 7.4         Tools for optimizing the multiple resource aspects of underground space        233 7.5         Criteria for delineating favorable and unfavorable underground zones 234 7.6         Vertical Control of Underground Space Development 237 7.7         Socio-economic factors in the development of underground space     238 7.7.1     Key influences 238 7.7.2     Influence of socio-economic factors on underground space configurations    240 7.8         Assessing the potential “value” of Underground Space Resources       241 7.8.1     Assessment of value based on need and potential future demand        241 7.8.2     Assessment of engineering difficulty for developing underground space by location and depth             243 7.8.3     Integrated quality assessment of underground space resources            244 7.8.4     Case Studies    244 7.8.4.1 Case study for Natong, China  244 7.8.4.2 Case Study for Xianyang, China              245 7.9         Long-term Forecasting of Underground Space Development Demand               246 7.9.1     Influencing factors for long-term forecasting   246 7.9.1.1 Case study for Dongguan, China            246 7.9.1.2 Case study for Xianyang, China               247 7.10       Summary of current analysis approaches         248 7.11       Chapter 7 references   248 8             PROJECT-RELATED PLANNING               252 8.1         Concept plan and requirements            252 8.1.1     Unstated and creeping requirements  253 8.1.2     Developing options and a robust concept          254 8.1.3     Systems tools for planning and decision making            256 8.1.4     Stakeholder analysis    257 8.2         Geo-planning   258 8.2.1     Site investigations         259 8.2.2     Good practice for site investigations    259 8.2.3     Cost planning for site investigations    260 8.3         Implementation planning          260 8.3.1     Contractual approach 261 8.3.2     Contracting for geological uncertainty (risk sharing)     261 8.3.3     Risk Management Plan 263 8.3.4     Construction planning 263 8.3.5     Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)           264 8.3.6     Managing excavation spoil        265 8.4         Space planning and engineering considerations            266 8.4.1     Openings and access   266 8.4.2     Dimensions and space requirements  267 8.4.3     Engineering systems    268 8.4.4     Air conditioning               268 8.4.5     Ventilation systems      269 8.4.6     Power supply, lighting, and electrical safety     269 8.5         Drainage and waterproofing     271 8.5.1     Some key categories of facilities in terms of water control        271 8.5.1.1 Shallow underground buildings, cut-and-cover tunnels and basement spaces              271 8.5.1.2 Rock cavern facilities  271 8.5.1.3 Bored or drill-and-blast tunnel facilities in rock or soil 272 8.5.2     Strategies and issues for water/moisture control          272 8.5.2.1 Impact on longevity, life-cycle cost and user acceptance          272 8.5.2.2 Building location, exterior envelope configuration and entrances, drainage provisions              272 8.5.2.3 Reducing or preventing water transmission      274 8.5.2.4 Choosing waterproofing systems           275 8.5.2.5 Facility geometry and detailing waterproofing systems              276 8.5.2.6 Deep underground spaces and tunnel systems              276 8.5.2.7 Long-term performance and maintenance       278 8.5.2.8 Summary for drainage and waterproofing          278 8.6         Considerations for maintenance and repair     278 8.6.1     Access for inspection, maintenance and repair              278 8.6.2     Inspection of tunnels, caverns, and shafts        279 8.6.3     Internal structures within rock caverns, tunnels and shafts      279 8.6.4     Supports for technical installations      279 8.6.5     Repairs of ground support or anchor systems 280 8.6.6     Confined space hazards             280 8.6.7     Radon gas          280 8.7         Chapter 8 references   280 9             DESIGNING UNDERGROUND SPACES – TOWARDS A NEW PARADIGM             283 9.1         Introduction      283 9.2         Moving from underground “works” to underground urban planning       284 9.2.1     Recognizing the range of resources available  284 9.2.2     Moving away from temporary and limited uses               285 9.2.3     Managing the porosity of the subsurface            285 9.2.4     The subsoil as a service area, a suburb of the aboveground     285 9.2.5     A Sustainable Development Approach to Resources and Flows             286 9.2.5.1 Empty or full?   286 9.2.5.2 Urban planning: the human source       286 9.2.5.3 The subsoil, an ""inspiring"" space           286 9.2.5.4 Conclusion        286 9.3         A change of paradigms 286 9.3.1     Now technology can do everything, what do we do with it?       287 9.3.2     General principles of underground architecture             288 9.3.2.1 Creating a void ….          288 9.3.2.2 ... or creating an inhabited space           288 9.3.2.3 Neither human life nor nature are rigid 288 9.3.2.4 The underground landscape exists, it must be taken into account        289 9.3.2.5 Questions beyond the quality of spaces             289 9.3.3     The legacy: from technical excellence to dehumanization        290 9.3.3.1 The beautification of Paris, thinking together the above and below       290 9.3.3.2 The metro, a technical network               290 9.3.3.3 Development of mastery, technical excellence but abandonment of a global conception of above and below   290 9.3.3.4 Separation of genres: the urban and its suburbs, slab urbanism, zoning            290 9.3.3.5 Towards a basement being an integral part of urban space       291 9.3.3.6 Starting from the fundamentals: Man humanizes his space, in a continuity of movement, and a continuity and unity of space         291 9.3.3.7 Against traditional zoning – the essential need for “mixed uses”            291 9.3.4     Examples to guide us    292 9.3.4.1 Networks           292 9.3.4.2 Isolated, unconnected structures          293 9.3.4.3 Connected works           293 9.3.4.4 Towards master plans  295 9.3.4.5 How to regenerate complexity and achieve diversity? 296 9.3.4.6 Economic balance        297 9.3.4.7 Developing another perspective, another approach: the real ground of the city             298 9.3.4.8 Highlighting the shortcomings 299 9.3.5     The National Project “Ville 10D” - City of Ideas initiative            300 9.3.5.1 The necessary interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity           301 9.3.5.2 Moving from adventure to evidence      301 9.3.5.3 A broad partnership for a systemic, multidisciplinary and experimental approach       301 9.3.5.4 Changing work orders: from underground works to underground urban planning          302 9.4         Evolving Thoughts on Underground Building Design     302 9.4.1     Complexity in Design   302 9.4.2     Interpreting and managing feelings of confinement      303 9.4.3     Compensating for the absence of windows      304 9.4.4     Adopting the tools of augmented reality             304 9.4.5     The Technical Upheavals in Lighting     305 9.4.5.1 Natural light and artificial light 306 9.4.5.2 Light and scenography 306 9.4.5.3 Technology at the service of nature underground           307 9.5         Chapter 9 References  307 10           PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS IN UNDERGROUND SPACE            308 10.1       Introduction      308 10.1.1   Relation to the first edition        308 10.2       First edition review (to 1993)     308 10.2.1   Purpose of first edition review 308 10.2.2   The image of the underground  309 10.2.3   Actual experience in underground buildings     311 10.2.3.1               Experience in Europe    311 10.2.3.2               Experience in the United States              312 10.2.3.3               Experience in China      314 10.2.3.4               Experience in Japan      315 10.2.4   Actual experience in windowless and other analogous environments 316 10.2.4.1               Windowless schools     317 10.2.4.2               Windowless offices       317 10.2.4.3               Windowless hospital rooms      317 10.2.4.4               Windowless factories  318 10.2.4.5               The functions of windows          318 10.3       Research and experience in the past thirty years           318 10.3.1   Introduction      318 10.3.2   General reviews             319 10.3.3   Objective comparisons of underground versus aboveground   322 10.3.4   Facility types and design elements       326 10.3.4.1               Workplace studies         326 10.3.4.2               Metro/rail           329 10.3.4.3               Road and pedestrian tunnels   330 10.3.4.4               Windows and lighting   331 10.3.4.5               Air quality / indoor environment             333 10.3.4.6               Biophilic indoor environments 334 10.3.5   Decision making for design and planning           335 10.3.5.1               Architectural design issues       335 10.3.5.2               Urban planning issues 337 10.4       Summary of issues        337 10.5       Chapter 10 references 341 11           EXTERIOR AND ENTRANCE DESIGN     347 11.1       Introduction      347 11.2       Exterior design issues and problems    347 11.2.1   Building image 348 11.2.2   Inability to see overall configuration     348 11.2.3   Exposed building services         349 11.3       Entrance design issues and problems 349 11.3.1   Entrance visibility and image   350 11.3.2   Lack of connection to surface environment     351 11.3.3   Fear of the underground              351 11.3.4   Separation of entrance functions           351 11.3.5   Access for mobility-impaired people   351 11.4       Summary of design objectives for exterior and entrance design             351 11.5       Design patterns: exterior and entrance design 352 11.5.1   Pattern 11-1: Terraced building with a hillside entrance              353 11.5.2   Pattern 11-2: Hillside entrance to an isolated facility   353 11.5.3   Pattern 11-3: Entrance through a sunken courtyard      354 11.5.4   Pattern 11-4: Open air structures over stairways and escalators           356 11.5.5   Pattern 11-5: Above-grade entrance pavilion   357 11.5.6   Pattern 11-6: Entrance through large above-grade building mass           359 11.5.7   Pattern 11-7: Open stairways, ramps and escalators   361 11.5.8   Pattern 11-8: Glass-enclosed vertical and inclined elevators  363 11.6       Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned            365 11.6.1   Introduction      365 11.6.2   Building exterior             366 11.6.3   Building entrance           368 11.7       Chapter 11 References               370 12           LAYOUT AND SPATIAL CONFIGURATION           371 12.1       Introduction      371 12.2       Design issues and problems     371 12.2.1   Lack of spatial orientation         372 12.2.2   Confinement and lack of stimulation   374 12.2.3   Maintaining privacy      375 12.3       Design objectives for layout and spatial configuration 375 12.4       Design patterns: layout and spatial configuration          375 12.4.1   Pattern 12-1: A system of paths, landmarks, activity nodes, and zones               376 12.4.2   Pattern 12-2: Building with hillside exposure    379 12.4.3   Pattern 12-3: Sunken exterior courtyards           381 12.4.4   Pattern 12-4: Interior atrium spaces     383 12.4.5   Pattern 12-5: Building thoroughfare      386 12.4.6   Pattern 12-6: Short, lively passageways             388 12.4.7   Pattern 12-7: Zones of distinct character           389 12.4.8   Pattern 12-8: Interior windows overlooking activity       390 12.4.9   Pattern 12-9: Hierarchy of privacy         392 12.4.10 Pattern 12-10: Complex room shapes and interconnected spaces       395 12.4.11 Pattern 12-11: High and varied ceilings               397 12.5       Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned            398 12.5.1   Introduction      398 12.5.2   Overall layout  399 12.5.3   Atrium / mezzanine spaces       400 12.5.4   Windows and privacy   401 12.5.5   Room shape     402 12.6       Chapter 12 References               402 13           INTERIOR DESIGN ELEMENTS AND SYSTEMS  404 13.1       Introduction      404 13.2       Design issues and problems     404 13.2.1   Stimulation and variety               405 13.2.2   Nature as a model         406 13.2.3   Confinement    406 13.2.4   Images of cold, damp spaces  407 13.2.5   Lower status     407 13.2.6   Spatial orientation        407 13.3       Design objectives for interior elements and systems   407 13.4       Design Patterns Related to Interior Elements and Systems      408 13.4.1   Pattern 13-1: Colorful, warm, and spacious environment          408 13.4.2   Pattern 13-2: Line, texture, and pattern               411 13.4.3   Pattern 13-3: Natural elements and materials 412 13.4.4   Pattern 13-4: Sculpture and man-made artifacts           415 13.4.5   Pattern 13-5: Warm, uncluttered furnishings    416 13.4.6   Pattern 13-6: Mirrors    418 13.4.7   Pattern 13-7: Alcoves and window-like recesses            419 13.4.8   Pattern 13-8: Paintings and photographs            420 13.4.9   Pattern 13-9: Transmitted and reflected exterior views 423 13.4.10 Pattern 13-10: Clear system of signs and maps               425 13.4.11 Pattern 13-11: Well-ventilated, comfortable environment         427 13.5       Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned            430 13.5.1   Introduction      430 13.5.2   Interior style     430 13.5.3   Choice of materials      431 13.5.4   Sculpture, artifacts and activities          431 13.5.5   Mirrors and view configurations              432 13.5.6   Signage and maps         432 13.5.7   Air quality and comfort 433 13.6       Chapter 13 References               433 14           LIGHTING          436 14.1       Introduction      436 14.2       Design issues and problems     436 14.2.1   The desire for natural light         436 14.2.2   Lack of stimulation and connection with nature             437 14.2.3   Darkness, cold, and confinement          438 14.2.4   Physiological concerns of light 438 14.3       Design objectives related to lighting     441 14.4       Design patterns related to lighting         441 14.4.1   Pattern 14-1: Natural light through windows and skylights         442 14.4.2   Pattern 14-2: Transmitted and reflected natural light   445 14.4.3   Pattern 14-3: Artificial light with natural characteristics             448 14.4.4   Pattern 14-4: Skylights and wall panels with artificial backlighting        449 14.4.5   Pattern 14-5: Indirect lighting of walls and ceilings       451 14.4.6   Pattern 14-6: Dark, ambiguous boundaries       453 14.4.7   Pattern 14-7: Patterns of light and shadow        454 14.5       Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned            455 14.5.1   Introduction      455 14.5.2   Exterior windows and skylights               455 14.5.3   Penetration of natural lighting within buildings 456 14.5.4   Interior lighting elements and systems 456 14.5.5   Lighting intensity variations      457 14.6       Chapter 14 References               457 15           LIFE SAFETY      459 15.1       Introduction      459 15.2       Design issues and problems     459 15.2.1   Emergency evacuation 461 15.2.2   Inaccessibility for fire fighting  462 15.2.3   Smoke and fire development   462 15.2.4   Innovation in underground life safety   463 15.3       Design objectives for life safety               463 15.4       Design patterns related to life safety    464 15.4.1   Pattern 15-1: Clear internal organization and egress system    464 15.4.2   Pattern 15-2: Safe vertical egress – stairwells, elevators, and escalators           469 15.4.3   Pattern 15-3: Compartmentalization and places of safe refuge               471 15.4.4   Pattern 15-4: Clear signs and emergency lighting          473 15.4.5   Pattern 15-5: Effective detection, alarm, and communication systems             475 15.4.6   Pattern 15-6: Effective smoke removal and air handling             476 15.4.7   Pattern 11-7: Effective fire suppression               478 15.4.8   Pattern 11-8: Fire-resistant construction and restriction of hazardous materials           478 15.5       Additional considerations, caveats and lessons learned            480 15.5.1   Introduction      480 15.5.2   Layout issues, compartmentalization, refuge and vertical egress         480 15.5.3   Detection, alarms, communications and signage         482 15.5.4   Smoke and fire 482 15.5.5   Materials and fire separation    483 15.6       Chapter 15 References               484 15.7       Short bibliography for recent standards and reports on underground fire and life safety            485 16           UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS   487 16.1       Introduction      487 16.2       Development of tunneling technology in rock  488 16.3       Development of tunneling technology in soft ground    490 16.4       Development of basement, open-cut excavation and shaft-sinking Technologies         492 16.5       Development of utility installation, rehabilitation and management technologies        493 16.6       Development of mining and oil/gas recovery technologies       496 16.7       Summary           498 16.8       Chapter 16 References               499 17           MANAGING UNDERGROUND SPACE FACILITIES           501 17.1       Introduction      501 17.2       Evolution of asset management approaches   501 17.3       Asset management for underground facilities – General considerations           503 17.3.1   Out-of-sight, out-of-mind           503 17.3.2   “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it”       503 17.3.3   Incomplete records of underground facilities  503 17.3.4   Difficulties in locating, inspecting and assessing condition      504 17.3.5   End-of-service-life decisions   504 17.3.6   Asset management for occupied underground spaces               505 17.4       Asset management issues for specific underground facility types        506 17.4.1   Transportation tunnels 506 17.4.2   Large underground pipes and tunnels (person-entry)   506 17.4.3   Underground piping systems (non-person-entry)           506 17.4.4   Buried cables and conduits      507 17.4.5   Underground buildings 507 17.4.6   Rock caverns   508 17.4.7   Mining operations          508 17.4.8   Civil defense facilities 509 17.5       Improving underground asset management     509 17.5.1   Prioritization of maintenance and rehabilitation work 509 17.5.2   Relating condition to asset value            510 17.5.3   Improved database structures and visualization            510 17.5.4   Improving location, inspection and assessment methodologies            511 17.5.5   Subsurface utility engineering approach            512 17.5.6   Ongoing data capture and correction  513 17.5.7   Utility coordination       513 17.5.8   Damage prevention programs 513 17.6       Summary           514 17.7       References        515 APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY OF TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS           517 APPENDIX B: EFFECT OF LAND COST ON CHOICE FOR UNDERGROUND SPACE USE               522 APPENDIX C: DATABASE FORMATS FOR CATALOGING UNDERGROUND SPACE USES               531 APPENDIX D: WORLDWIDE EXAMPLES OF UNDERGROUND SPACE USES       537