Sustainable Solutions for Environmental Pollution, Volume 2

Preface xv 1 Natural-Based Solutions for Bioremediation in Water Environment 1 Pascal Breil, Marie-Noëlle Pons, Gilles Armani, Ranya Amer, Harrison Pienaar, Paul Oberholster and Philippe Namour 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Basic Principles 3 1.2.1 Bioremediation 3 1.2.2 Self-Purification 3 1.2.2.1 Redox Processes 4 1.2.2.2 Photo-Degradation 5 1.3 Aquatic Bioremediation Structures 6 1.4 Constructed Porous Ramps 8 1.5 Bank Filtration for Water Treatment 10 1.6 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 12 1.6.1 Water Flow 15 1.6.2 Aquatic Vegetation 16 1.7 Phytoremediation and Constructed Wetlands 17 1.7.1 Phytoremediation Techniques 17 1.7.2 Aquatic Phytobiome 18 1.7.3 Various Aquatic Plants Used 19 1.7.4 Emergent Aquatic Plants 20 1.7.5 Floating Leaved Aquatic Plants 20 1.7.6 Floating Aquatic Plants 20 1.7.7 Submerged Aquatic Plants 20 1.7.8 Mixture of Macrophytes and Microalgae 21 1.8 Phycoremediation 21 1.8.1 Carbon and Nutrients (N and P) Removal 21 1.8.2 Micropollutant Removal 23 1.9 Phytoremediation 23 1.9.1 Carbon and Nutrients (N and P) Removal 24 1.9.2 Metals Removal 25 1.9.3 Organic Micropollutant Removal 28 1.10 Improving Bioremediation Systems 31 1.10.1 Introduction 31 1.10.2 Floating Treatment Constructed Wetlands 33 1.10.3 Electro-Bioremediation 34 1.10.4 Bench Tests 35 1.10.5 Pilot Tests 36 1.10.6 Field Implementations 37 1.10.7 Maintenance of Aquatic Bioremediation Systems 38 1.10.8 Biomass Management 38 1.10.9 Sediment Management 39 1.11 Animal Biodiversity 40 1.11.1 Biodiversity Management 40 1.12 Nuisances 41 1.12.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHG) 41 1.12.2 Noxious Gases 42 1.12.3 Mosquitoes 43 1.12.4 Burrowing Animals 43 1.12.5 Algal Blooms 44 1.13 Wetland Monitoring 44 1.13.1 Monitoring Large-Scale CWs 44 1.13.2 Vegetation Monitoring 47 1.14 Wetland Modeling 50 1.14.1 Aquatic Plant Development Models 50 1.14.1.1 Submerged Aquatic Plants 50 1.14.1.2 Duckweed 51 1.14.2 Micropollutants Sorption 51 1.14.3 Organic Micropollutant Photolysis 52 1.14.4 Global CW Modeling 52 1.15 Social Acceptance 53 1.15.1 Yzeron Watershed Case Study (France) 54 1.15.2 South Africa Case Study 55 1.16 Ecohydrology, an Integrative NBS Implementation 57 1.16.1 Three Nested Logics for Innovative NBS Implementation 57 1.16.2 Ecohydrology on Small Watersheds 59 1.17 Conclusion 63 Acknowledgement 65 References 65 2 Removal of Heavy Metals From the Environment by Phytoremediation and Microbial Remediation 95 Raluca-Maria Hlihor, Cozma Petronela and Maria Gavrilescu 2.1 Introduction 96 2.2 Linking Heavy Metals Toxicity With Their Discharge and Removal From the Environmental   Compartments 98 2.3 Bio-Alternative Approaches Used for Heavy Metals Removal and/or Recovery From the Environment 102 2.3.1 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation 102 2.3.2 Phytoremediation 110 2.3.2.1 Limitation and Challenges of Phytoremediation 121 2.4 Interactions of Heavy Metals With Biological Systems and Toxicity Threats 122 2.4.1 Some Expressions of Metal Toxicity in Living Organisms 122 2.4.2 Heavy Metals, Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress 124 2.4.3 Some Effects of Humans’ Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 124 2.4.4 Effects of Plants Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 125 2.4.5 Effects of Microbes Exposure to Heavy Metals Toxicity 129 2.5 Synergistic Use of Plants and Bacteria for Cleaning Up the Environment Polluted With Heavy Metals 131 2.6 Conclusions 135 Acknowledgments 136 References 136 Website 146 3 Bioremediation as a Sustainable Solution for Environmental Contamination by Petroleum Hydrocarbons 147 Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight 3.1 Introduction 147 3.2 Principles of Bioremediation 152 3.3 Bioremediation and Biodegradation 154 3.3.1 Natural Bioremediation Mechanism 155 3.3.2 Traditional Bioremediation Methods 155 3.3.3 Enhanced Bioremediation Treatment 156 3.4 Mechanism of Biodegradation 160 3.4.1 Chemical Reactions 160 3.5 Bioremediation of Land Ecosystems 162 3.5.1 Soil Evaluation 168 3.5.1.1 Chemical Properties 169 3.5.1.2 Biological Properties 170 3.5.1.3 Effect of Temperature 172 3.5.1.4 Effect of pH 173 3.5.1.5 Effect of Salinity 174 3.6 Bioremediation of Water Ecosystems 175 3.6.1 Biodegradation 177 3.6.2 Bioremediation 177 3.6.2.1 Temperature 178 3.6.2.2 Effect of Oxygen 178 3.6.2.3 Nutrients 178 3.6.2.4 Effect of Petroleum Characteristics 179 3.6.2.5 Effect of Prior Exposure 179 3.6.2.6 Effect of Dispersants 179 3.6.2.7 Effect of Flowing Water 179 3.6.2.8 Effect of Deep-Sea Environments 180 3.7 Challenges and Opportunities 180 References 182 4 Pollution Protection Using Novel Membrane Catalytic Reactors 189 Said. S. E. H. Elnashaie and Elham Elzanati Nomenclatures 190 Greek Letters 193 Abbreviations 193 4.1 Introduction 194 4.2 Autothermal Systems 195 4.2.1 Dehydrogenation (Dehydro) and Hydrogenation (Hydro) Reactions 195 4.2.2 Dehydrogenation (Dehydro) Definition 196 4.2.3 Dehydro Reaction and the Generated Hydrogen Consumption 196 4.2.4 Endothermic (Endo) Dehydro Coupled With Exothermic (Exo) Reactions 197 4.3 The Thermal Coupling and the Autothermal (Auto) Reactors 199 4.3.1 Recuperative Coupling Reactor 199 4.3.1.1 Recuperative Coupling Reactors Design 200 4.3.1.2 Examples of Recuperative Reactions Coupling 201 4.3.2 Regenerative Coupling Reactor 201 4.3.3 Direct Coupling Reactor 201 4.4 The Membrane Reactor 209 4.5 Development Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 215 4.5.1 Gas-to-Liquid Fuel 216 4.5.2 High-Temperature Fisher-Tropsch (HTFT) Processes 216 4.6 HTFT Reactor Type and Developments 217 4.6.1 Fixed-Bed Reactor 219 4.6.2 Fluidized-Bed Reactor 219 4.6.2.1 The Fluidization Principle 219 4.6.2.2 Classification of Fluidized Reactor 219 4.6.3 Bubble Column Reactors 221 4.6.4 Dual-Type Membrane Reactor 222 4.7 Membrane Reactors Classification 227 4.8 Rate Expressions 228 4.8.1 Modeling of the Dehydro Process in Membrane Reactor 230 4.9 Industrial Applications 232 4.9.1 Heterogeneous Catalytic Gas-Phase Reactions 232 4.9.1.1 Catalytic Cracking 232 4.9.1.2 Synthesis of Acrylonitrile 232 4.9.1.3 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 233 4.9.1.4 Other Processes 233 4.9.2 Homogeneous Gas-Phase Reactions 233 4.9.3 Gas-Solid Reactions 233 4.9.4 Applications in Biotechnology 234 4.10 Catalytic Membrane Reactors Coupling Dehydro of EB to S With Hydro NB to A as a Case Study 234 4.10.1 Introduction 235 4.10.2 Reactor Configuration 237 4.10.3 Reactor Model 240 4.11 Case Study of Use the Membranes in Fischer-Tropsch Reactors 246 4.11.1 Introduction 246 4.11.2 Use of Semi-Permeable Membranes in FTS 247 4.11.3 Water-Selective Semi-Permeable Membranes for Water Removal 248 4.11.4 The Use of Non-Selective Porous Membranes in FTS 249 4.11.4.1 Concept of the Plug-Through Contactor Membranes Using the Permeable Composite Monolith (PCM) 249 4.11.4.2 Preparation of PCM, the Possibility to Control the Porous Structure Parameters at the Preparation Stage 251 4.11.5 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis in a PCM Membrane Reactor 252 4.11.5.1 Dry Mode of Operation 252 4.11.5.2 Flooded Mode of Operation, the Effect of the Pore Structure and Membrane Geometry on the Magnitude of the Mass-Transfer Constrains 253 4.12 Biofuel and Sustainability 253 4.13 Conclusions 254 References 256 5 Removal of Microbial Contaminants From Polluted Water Using Combined Biosand Filters Techniques 265 Lizzy Aluoch Mwamburi 5.1 Introduction 266 5.2 Slow Sand Filtration 266 5.2.1 Sand Filters and Removal of Pollutants 268 5.2.1.1 Effect of Sand Grain Size on Removal of Pollutants 268 5.2.1.2 Effect of Sand Bed Depth on Removal of Pollutants 270 5.2.1.3 Effect of Retention Time on Removal of Pollutants 271 5.3 Wetlands 272 5.3.1 Natural Wetlands 272 5.3.2 Constructed Wetlands 273 5.3.2.1 Types of Macrophytes in Constructed Wetlands 275 5.3.2.2 Constructed Wetlands and Removal of Pollutants 276 5.3.2.3 Combined Macrophyte Species in Constructed Wetlands 278 5.3.2.4 Advantages of Constructed Wetlands 280 5.4 Combination of Sand Filters With Constructed Wetlands Systems 281 5.5 Conclusions 282 References 282 6 Biosurfactants: Promising Biomolecules for Environmental Cleanup 293 Geeta Rawat, Renu Choudhary, Vijay Kumar and Vivek Kumar 6.1 Introduction 294 6.2 Biosurfactants Types 295 6.3 Biosurfactants Mechanism of Remediation 295 6.4 Bioremediation of Petro-Hydrocarbon Contaminants 296 6.5 Microbial Enhance Oil Recovery (MEOR) 299 6.5.1 Mechanism of MEOR 300 6.6 Biosurfactants and Agro-Ecosystem Pollutants 302 6.7 Heavy Metals Removal 306 6.8 Biosurfactants for Sustainability 308 6.8.1 Low-Cost Substrates 308 6.9 Production Processes 309 6.10 Concluding Remarks 309 6.11 Future Aspects 310 References 311 7 Metal Hyperaccumulation in Plants: Phytotechnologies 321 Rachna Chandra, B. Anjan Kumar Prusty and P. A. Azeez 7.1 Introduction 322 7.2 Phytotechnologies and Terminologies 326 7.2.1 Phytoaccumulation/Phytoextraction 326 7.2.2 Rhizofiltration 331 7.2.3 Phytovolatilization 332 7.2.4 Rhizodegradation 333 7.2.5 Phytodegradation/Phytotransformation 334 7.2.6 Phytostabilization 335 7.3 Biological Mechanisms 336 7.4 Present Gaps and Prospects 340 7.5 Conclusion 343 Acknowledgements 344 References 344 8 Microbial Remediation Approaches for PAH Degradation 355 KavitaVerma and Vartika Mathur 8.1 Introduction 356 8.2 Biogeochemical Properties and Sources of PAH 357 8.3 Fate of PAH 363 8.4 PAH: Soil and Air Pollution 364 8.5 Harmful Effects of PAH 364 8.6 Microbe Assisted Biodegradation 366 8.6.1 Bacterial Assisted PAH Degradation 366 8.6.2 Mechanism 367 8.6.3 Mycoremediation 381 8.6.3.1 Mechanism 382 8.6.4 Algae Assisted PAH Degradation 383 8.7 Genes and Enzymes Involved in Microbial Degradation 384 8.8 Factors Affecting Microbial Biodegradation 384 8.9 Bioremediation and Genetic Engineering 385 8.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 386 References 386 9 Biomorphic Synthesis of Nanosized Zinc Oxide for Water Purification 401 Waleed I.M. El-Azab and Hager R. Ali 9.1 Introduction 401 9.2 Properties of ZnO NPs 404 9.2.1 Structure and Lattice Parameters of ZnO 404 9.2.2 Mechanical Properties 404 9.2.3 Electronic Properties 405 9.2.4 Optical Properties 405 9.3 Protocol for the Biosynthesis of ZnO NPs 405 9.3.1 Natural Extract–Based ZnO Nanostructure 405 9.3.2 Microorganism-Based ZnO Nanostructures 411 9.3.3 Solvent System‐Based “Green” Synthesis 412 9.4 Factors Affecting the Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles 413 9.4.1 pH 414 9.4.2 Temperature 414 9.4.3 Influence of the Reactant 414 9.4.4 Effect of Metabolites 414 9.5 Applications of Biologically Synthesized NPs 415 9.5.1 Antibacterial Effect of ZnO-NPs 415 9.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity 417 9.5.3 ZnO NPs and ROS Production 418 9.6 Mechanism of Biogenic Synthesis of ZnO NPs 419 9.7 Cytotoxicity of Nanoparticles 421 9.8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 421 References 422 10 Pollution Dynamics of Urban Catchments 433 Eugine Makaya 10.1 Introduction 434 10.1.1 Environmental Protection for Sustainable Development 434 10.1.2 Sustainability in Industrial Wastewater Treatment 435 10.1.3 Sustainability in Organic Solid Waste Management 437 10.2 Sustainability in Domestic Wastewater Treatment 438 10.2.1 Centralized Sanitation and Sustainability 438 10.2.2 Decentralized Sanitation and Sustainability 438 10.2.3 Merits of Centralized Over Decentralized Sanitation 439 10.3 Source Area Pollutant Generation Processes 441 10.3.1 Automotive Activities 441 10.3.2 Atmospheric Depositions 442 10.4 Polluting Activities 444 10.4.1 Industrial 444 10.5 Characterization of Urban Pollutants 445 10.5.1 Air Pollution Measurements Used in Estimating Annual Average Concentrations 445 10.5.2 Comparative Quantification of Health Risks 446 10.6 The Fate and Transport of Urban Pollutants 447 10.7 Spatial Distribution of Urbans Pollutants 449 10.7.1 Tools for Monitoring the Spatial Distribution 449 10.7.1.1 Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing 449 10.7.1.2 Shetran Modeling 450 10.8 Case Study: City of Harare 452 10.9 Conclusions, Challenges, Opportunities, and/ or Future Aspects 454 References 454 11 Bioupgrading of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Fractions 457 Karuna K. Arjoon and James G. Speight 11.1 Introduction 457 11.2 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery 459 11.3 Biotransformation of Heavy Crude Oil 461 11.4 Biorefining of Crude Oil 471 11.4.1 Biodesulfurization 471 11.4.2 Biodenitrogenation 481 11.4.3 Biodemetallization 485 11.5 The Future of Biotechnology in the Refinery 489 References 491 12 Recyclable Porous Adsorbents as Environmentally Approach for Greenhouse Gas Capture 503 Nour F. Attia, Sally E. A. Elashery, Ahmed A. Galhoum, Hyunchul Oh and Ibrahim El T. El Sayed 12.1 Introduction 504 12.2 Classification of Porous Materials 506 12.3 Recyclability Routes of Biomass to Porous Carbons 508 12.4 Activation Routes Processes 509 12.4.1 Physical Activation 509 12.4.2 Chemical Activation 510 12.5 Co 2 Capture in Recyclable Porous Carbon Materials 511 12.6 Co 2 Capture Mechanism in Porous Carbons 519 12.7 Prospects and Outlooks 520 12.8 Conclusion 521 Acknowledgements 521 References 521 About the Editor 533 Index 535