Sedimentology and Stratigraphy

Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii About the Companion Website xv Part A Sedimentary Materials, Processes and Products 1 1 Introduction to Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 3 1.1 Overview 4 1.2 Sedimentology 5 1.3 Stratigraphy 6 1.4 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 7 Further Reading 8 2 Clastic Sediments: Gravel, Sand and Mud 9 2.1 Classification of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks 10 2.2 Gravel and Conglomerate 12 2.3 Sand and Sandstone 15 2.4 Clay, Silt and Mudrock 26 2.5 Textures and Analysis of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 29 2.6 Clastic Sediments: Summary 34 Further Reading 34 3 Biogenic, Chemical and Volcanogenic Sediments 35 3.1 Limestone 36 3.2 Evaporite Minerals 44 3.3 Cherts 46 3.4 Sedimentary Phosphates 47 3.5 Sedimentary Ironstone 47 3.6 Carbonaceous (Organic) Deposits 49 3.7 Volcaniclastic Sedimentary Rocks 51 Further Reading 52 4 Processes of Transport and Sedimentary Structures 53 4.1 Transport Media 54 4.2 The Behaviour of Fluids and Particles in Fluids 55 4.3 Flows, Sediment and Bedforms 60 4.4 Waves 70 4.5 Sediment Gravity Flows 73 4.6 Mudcracks 77 4.7 Erosional Sedimentary Structures 78 4.8 Terminology for Sedimentary Structures and Beds 79 4.9 Sedimentary Structures and Sedimentary Environments 81 Further Reading 82 5 Field Sedimentology, Facies and Environments 83 5.1 Field Sedimentology 84 5.2 Graphic Sedimentary Logs 85 5.3 Palaeocurrents 91 5.4 Sampling Sedimentary Rocks 94 5.5 Description of Core 96 5.6 Interpreting Past Depositional Environments 97 5.7 Reconstructing Palaeoenvironments 101 5.8 Summary: Facies and Environments 105 Further Reading 105 Part B Continental Environments 107 6 Continental Environments and Sources of Sediment 109 6.1 From Source of Sediment to Formation of Strata 110 6.2 Tectonic Uplift 110 6.3 Global Climate 111 6.4 Weathering Processes 112 6.5 Erosion and Transport 115 6.6 Denudation and Landscape Evolution 118 6.7 Continental Environments of Deposition 124 Further Reading 126 7 Glacial Environments 127 7.1 Distribution of Glacial Environments 128 7.2 Glacial Ice 129 7.3 Continental Glacial Environments 131 7.4 Continental Glacial Deposition 136 7.5 Marine Glacial Environments 138 7.6 Glacial Deposits in the Stratigraphic Record 140 7.7 Glacial Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 141 Further Reading 142 8 Aeolian Environments 143 8.1 Aeolian Transport 144 8.2 Characteristics of Wind- blown Particles 145 8.3 Desert Environments 146 8.4 Aeolian Bedforms 148 8.5 Stratigraphic Record of Aeolian Deposits 152 8.6 Aeolian Deposits Outside Deserts 155 8.7 Summary 157 Further Reading 158 9 Rivers and Alluvial Fans 159 9.1 Fluvial and Alluvial Systems 160 9.2 River Channels 162 9.3 Floodplain Deposition 170 9.4 Alluvial Fans 171 9.5 Fossils in Fluvial and Alluvial Environments 175 9.6 Soils and Palaeosols 176 9.7 Fluvial and Alluvial Stratigraphy 179 Further Reading 184 10 Lakes 185 10.1 Lakes and Lacustrine Environments 186 10.2 Freshwater Lakes 187 10.3 Freshwater Lake Clastic Deposits 190 10.4 Saline Lakes 193 10.5 Ephemeral Lakes 194 10.6 Lacustrine Carbonates 197 10.7 Lacustrine Stratigraphy 198 10.8 Recognition of Lacustrine Facies in the Stratigraphic Record 199 Further Reading 200 11 Volcanic Rocks and Sediments 201 11.1 Volcanic Rocks and Sediment 202 11.2 Transport and Deposition of Volcaniclastic Material 205 11.3 Eruption Styles 209 11.4 Facies Associations in Volcanic Successions 210 11.5 Volcanic Material in Other Environments 213 11.6 Volcanic Rocks in Earth History 214 Further Reading 215 Part C Marine Environments 217 12 The Marine Realm: Morphology and Processes 219 12.1 Oceans and Seas 220 12.2 Oceanic Currents 222 12.3 Wave and Storm Processes 222 12.4 Tides 223 12.5 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentation in Oceans 228 12.6 Marine Fossils 230 12.7 Trace Fossils 231 Further Reading 235 13 Deltas 237 13.1 Modern Deltas 238 13.2 Variations in Delta Morphology 241 13.3 Syndepositional Deformation in Deltas 249 13.4 Deltaic Successions 249 13.5 Deltaic Cycles and Stratigraphy 254 13.6 Fossils in Deltaic Deposits 255 13.7 Recognition of Deltaic Deposits 255 Further Reading 256 14 Clastic Coasts and Estuaries 259 14.1 Coasts 260 14.2 Beaches 261 14.3 Wave- dominated Coastlines 265 14.4 Tidally Influenced Coastal Systems 269 14.5 Estuaries 271 14.6 Fossils in Coastal and Estuarine Environments 275 14.7 Recognition of Coastal and Estuarine Systems 276 Further Reading 277 15 Shallow Sandy Seas 279 15.1 Shallow Marine Environments 280 15.2 Storm and Wave- dominated Shallow Clastic Seas 282 15.3 Tide- dominated Clastic Shallow Seas 286 15.4 Responses to Change in Sea Level 290 15.5 Fossils in Sandy Shelf Successions 291 15.6 Criteria for the Recognition of Sandy Shallow Marine Sediments 292 Further Reading 293 16 Shallow Marine Carbonate and Evaporite Environments 295 16.1 Carbonate and Evaporite Depositional Environments 296 16.2 Coastal Carbonate and Evaporite Environments 299 16.3 Shallow Marine Carbonate Deposits 303 16.4 Carbonate Platform Facies and Successions 309 16.5 Marine Evaporites 314 16.6 Mixed Carbonate- clastic Environments 317 16.7 Recognition of Shallow Marine Carbonate and Evaporite Facies 318 Further Reading 319 17 Deep Marine Environments 321 17.1 The Deep Seas 322 17.2 Sediment Gravity Flow Processes in Deep Seas 323 17.3 Submarine Fans 325 17.4 Ancient Submarine Fan Systems 328 17.5 Slope Aprons 332 17.6 Ocean Current and Pelagic Sedimentation 333 17.7 Chemogenic Sediments 337 17.8 Fossils in Deep Ocean Sediments 337 Further Reading 339 Part D Post-depositional Processes 341 18 Soft Sediment Deformation 343 18.1 Deformation After Deposition 344 18.2 Large- scale Post- depositional Features 350 Further Reading 353 19 Diagenesis 355 19.1 Diagenetic Processes 356 19.2 Clastic Diagenesis 363 19.3 Carbonate Diagenesis 366 19.4 Diagenesis of Volcaniclastic Sediments 369 19.5 Formation of Coal, Oil and Gas 370 Further Reading 375 Part E Stratigraphy 377 20 Stratigraphy: Concepts and Lithostratigraphy 379 20.1 Geologic Time 380 20.2 Stratigraphic Units 385 20.3 Lithostratigraphy 385 20.4 Applications of Lithostratigraphy 391 Further Reading 394 21 Biostratigraphy 395 21.1 Fossils in Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 396 21.2 Classification of Organisms 397 21.3 Evolutionary Trends 398 21.4 Biozones and Zone Fossils 400 21.5 Taxa Used in Biostratigraphy 404 21.6 Applied Biostratigraphy 408 21.7 Biostratigraphy and Other Stratigraphic Techniques 409 Further Reading 410 22 Dating and Correlation Techniques 411 22.1 Techniques for Dating and Correlation 412 22.2 Radiometric dating 412 22.3 Magnetostrati graphy 416 22.4 Chemostrati graphy 418 22.5 Dating in the Quaternary 421 Further Reading 423 23 Subsurface Stratigraphy and Sedimentology 425 23.1 Introduction to Subsurface Stratigraphy and Sedimentology 426 23.2 Seismic Reflection Data 426 23.3 Borehole Stratigraphy and Sedimentology 432 23.4 Petrophysical Logging 435 23.5 Subsurface Facies and Basin Analysis 440 Further Reading 441 24 Sequence Stratigraphy and Sea Level Changes 443 24.1 Sea- level Changes and Sedimentation 444 24.2 Depositional Sequences and Systems Tracts 452 24.3 Parasequences: Components of Systems Tracts 457 24.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 461 24.5 Applications of Sequence Stratigraphy 463 24.6 Causes of Sea Level Fluctuations 467 24.7 Sequence Stratigraphy: Summary 473 Further Reading 474 25 Sedimentary Basins 475 25.1 Controls on Sediment Accumulation 476 25.2 Basins Related to Lithospheric Extension 478 25.3 Basins Related to Subduction 484 25.4 Basins Related to Crustal Loading 486 25.5 Basins Related to Strike- slip Tectonics 489 25.6 Complex and Hybrid Basins 490 25.7 The Record of Tectonics in Stratigraphy 490 25.8 Sedimentary Basin Analysis 492 25.9 Integrating Sedimentology and Stratigraphy: the History of the Earth’s Surface 495 Further Reading 496 References 497 Index 511