Satellites for Atmospheric Sciences 1

"Acknowledgments xi List of Acronyms xiii Introduction xxxi Thierry PHULPIN Part 1 Satellite Observation of the Earth's Atmosphere: International Cooperation 1 Chapter 1 History of Meteorological Satellites 3 Sylvain LE MOAL 1.1 The beginnings of remote sensing and the conquest of space 3 1.2 It all began with Tiros-1, the first meteorological satellite 6 1.3 American meteorological satellites 8 1.3.1 Polar-orbiting satellites 8 1.3.2 Geostationary satellites 13 1.4 Russian meteorological satellites 17 1.4.1 Polar-orbiting satellites 17 1.4.2 Geostationary satellites 20 1.5 European meteorological satellites 21 1.5.1 The Meteosat saga 21 1.5.2 46 years after Tiros-1, MetOp enters the scene 28 1.6 Elsewhere 29 1.6.1 Japan 29 1.6.2 China 31 1.6.3 Korea 33 1.6.4 India 33 1.7 References 35 1.8 Websites 36 Chapter 2 Contribution of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, USA) Meteorological Satellites Program: An Overview 37 Sid-Ahmed BOUKABARA, Mitch GOLDBERG, Timothy J SCHMIT, Andrew HEIDINGER, Satya KALLURI, Patricia WEIR, Frank GALLAGHER, David SPENCER and Ross N HOFFMAN 2.1 NOAA Satellite Program: historical background 38 2.1.1 Origins of NASA-NOAA Polar and Geostationary Environmental Satellite Programs 38 2.1.2 Low Earth orbit (LEO) missions 40 2.1.3 Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) missions 43 2.2 NOAA Current Space Constellation 45 2.2.1 The NOAA Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Program 45 2.2.2 GOES-R series 49 2.2.3 Collaborative programs 51 2.3 Applications 52 2.4 Looking ahead: designing the next-generation architecture 57 2.4.1 Factors impacting the NOAA strategy 57 2.4.2 Next-generation NOAA space architecture 59 2.5 Summary 62 2.6 Acknowledgments 62 2.7 References 63 Chapter 3 The Role of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, USA) 67 Michael SEABLOM 3.1 The beginnings of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 67 3.2 The Nimbus Era (1964–1979) 68 3.3 The Earth Observing System (1982–2004) 72 3.4 The ""A-train"" (2004–present) 81 3.5 Decadal surveys and technological disruption (2007–present) 84 3.6 References 87 Chapter 4 The Role of the European Space Agency (ESA) 89 Paul INGMANN 4.1 Missions in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) – ESA's Start in Earth Observation 89 4.2 Missions in low Earth orbit (LEO) 92 4.2.1 ERS 92 4.2.2 Envisat 94 4.2.3 MetOp 95 4.2.4 The Earth Explorer and Earth Watch Concept 96 4.3 ESA's Climate Change Initiative (CCI) 113 4.4 References 114 Chapter 5 The Role of EUMETSAT (Europe) 117 François MONTAGNER 5.1 Introduction: What does EUMETSAT do? 117 5.1.1 Public service value of weather satellites 117 5.1.2 EUMETSAT, a key player in Europe 117 5.1.3 Climate and environment 118 5.2 The organization 118 5.2.1 First steps 118 5.2.2 Stability and growth 120 5.2.3 Government 120 5.2.4 European pooling: EUMETSAT, ECMWF and EUMETNET 121 5.2.5 Global pooling by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 122 5.3 Geostationary weather satellites: from synoptic to regional zoom 122 5.3.1 Meteosat first generation 122 5.3.2 Meteosat second generation 125 5.3.3 Agility of geostationary missions 127 5.3.4 Stabilization by rotation or on three axes: system aspects 128 5.3.5 Meteosat Third Generation 128 5.4 MetOp satellites, the first source for numerical weather forecasting 130 5.4.1 Synergy of observations 131 5.4.2 Continuity and innovation 132 5.4.3 The second generation of the European Polar System 133 5.4.4 Scale economies 134 5.4.5 Cooperation regarding the polar orbit 135 5.5 Weather perspective and innovation 136 5.6 Climate 137 5.7 EUMETSAT and Copernicus 137 5.7.1 A convenient partnership 137 5.7.2 EUMETSAT and the Copernicus services 138 5.7.3 Continuity and expansion: the challenge of CO2 139 5.8 References 139 Chapter 6 The Role of the National Center for Space Studies (CNES, France) 141 Carole DENIEL and Pierre TABARY 6.1 The CNES and its scientific missions 141 6.2 Greenhouse gases and composition of the atmosphere 142 6.2.1 Merlin, a political French–German will 143 6.2.2 Microcarb, a strategic and continuous project… 144 6.2.3 TRAQ, Geotrope, Mageaq, promising projects but no future developments… 146 6.3 IASI and IASI-NG, for meteorology, atmospheric composition and climate 147 6.4 Physical properties of the atmosphere 151 6.4.1 Aerosols and clouds: PARASOL, CALIPSO and the A-Train 152 6.4.2 Next: 3MI and EarthCare 154 6.4.3 A study in the longer term: ACCP 155 6.4.4 Megha-Tropiques and rainfall 156 6.5 Additional facilities and means of observation 157 6.6 The role of numerical models 159 6.7 References 160 Chapter 7 A Coordinated International Effort 163 Jérôme LAFEUILLE 7.1 The challenges of international coordination 163 7.2 Multilateral coordination instances 165 7.2.1 Overview 165 7.2.2 The World Weather Watch and its space component 165 7.2.3 CGMS 169 7.2.4 CEOS 172 7.3 The benefits of coordination 174 7.3.1 Mission continuity 174 7.3.2 Intercalibration of instruments in orbit 175 7.3.3 The climate observation strategy 177 7.3.4 Use of the radio frequency spectrum 178 7.3.5 Access to data 179 7.3.6 Bilateral cooperation 181 7.4 An extended community of space operators 182 7.4.1 A growing number of national operational agencies 182 7.4.2 The emergence of the private sector 183 7.5 Conclusion 184 7.6 References 184 Part 2 The Physical Basis 187 Chapter 8 Satellite Orbits for Atmospheric Observation 189 Michel CAPDEROU 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Preliminaries 190 8.3 Satellites in low Earth orbit 192 8.3.1 Orbital characteristics 192 8.3.2 Sun-synchronous satellites 194 8.3.3 Non-Sun-synchronous satellites 200 8.3.4 Recurrent satellites 200 8.3.5 Spatio-temporal sampling 202 8.3.6 Collaboration with LEO satellites 208 8.4 Satellites in geostationary orbits 209 8.4.1 Orbit characteristics 209 8.4.2 Observation conditions 210 8.5 Other types of orbits used 211 8.5.1 Satellites in HEO orbits 211 8.5.2 Uses of satellites in MEO orbit 212 8.6 References 213 Chapter 9 Measurement Physics 215 Clémence PIERANGELO, Fatima KARBOU and Claude CAMY-PEYRET 9.1 Physical principles of observation of the atmosphere by satellite 215 9.1.1 Basic principles of remote sensing 215 9.1.2 Absorption, scattering, emission 218 9.1.3 Spectroscopy of gaseous species 219 9.1.4 Optical properties of particles 220 9.1.5 At the surface: reflection and emission 222 9.1.6 Spectroscopic parameter database 224 9.1.7 Aerosol and cloud databases 224 9.1.8 Atmospheric profile databases 224 9.1.9 Surface databases 225 9.2 Radiative transfer equation 225 9.2.1 Differential RTE 225 9.2.2 Integration of the RTE 226 9.2.3 Polarized RTE 228 9.2.4 Recent advances for radiative transfer 229 9.2.5 RTE analysis and implications for space-based remote sensing of the atmosphere 229 9.2.6 Example: the 4A/OP source code 232 9.3 Passive optical sensors: radiometers and spectrometers 233 9.3.1 Radiometers 234 9.3.2 Spectrometers 235 9.3.3 Level 1 processing 238 9.3.4 The sensors of the future 238 9.4 Active optical sensors: lidars 239 9.4.1 Lidar principle 239 9.4.2 Lidar equation 240 9.4.3 Different types of spatial Lidar 240 9.4.4 Comparison of optical sensors 246 9.5 Passive and active microwave sensors 247 9.5.1 Specificities of microwave sensors 247 9.5.2 Passive microwave sensors 247 9.5.3 Active microwave sensors 249 9.5.4 List of microwave instruments 249 9.6 References 249 Chapter 10 The Inverse Problem and Techniques for Atmospheric Variable Retrieval 253 Clémence PIERANGELO 10.1 General remarks on the inversion of atmospheric parameters 253 10.2 Matrix expression of the direct problem 254 10.2.1 Matrix expression 254 10.2.2 Linearization of the problem 255 10.2.3 Typical dimensions of the problem 255 10.3 Solutions to the inverse problem 256 10.3.1 Least squares 256 10.3.2 Probabilistic methods 258 10.3.3 Methods with pre-calculated bases 262 10.4 References 265 Appendices 267 Appendix 1 269 Claude CAMY-PEYRET Appendix 2 277 Claude CAMY-PEYRET Appendix 3 287 Appendix 4 301 Glossary 307 List of Authors 321 Index 325 Summary of Volume 2 329"