Rising Contagious Diseases

List of Contributors xxv Foreword xxxi Preface xxxii Biographies xxxiii 1 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview 1 Ranjita Shegokar, Seth K. Amponsah, and Yashwant V. Pathak 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy 1 1.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs 2 1.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs 3 1.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades 4 1.6 Conclusion 6 2 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID-19 7 Ismaila Adams, Ofosua Adi-Dako, Eugene Boafo, Emmanuel K. Ofori, and Seth K. Amponsah 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Overview of COVID-19 8 2.3 Current State of the Pandemic 10 2.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling 11 2.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future 12 2.6 Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems 13 2.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations 14 2.8 Global Preparedness and Response 15 2.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 16 3 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease 20 Julia Wang, Lynn Nguyen, Vernon Volante, Jeannez Daniel, and Charles Preuss 3.1 History of Mpox virus 20 3.2 Characteristics 20 3.3 Epidemiology 20 3.4 Transmission 21 3.5 Pathogenicity 22 3.6 Risk Factors 23 3.7 Diagnostic Testing 24 3.8 Symptoms 24 3.9 Long-Term Effects and Complications 25 3.10 Vaccinations 26 3.11 Epidemic Management 27 3.12 Pharmacology 28 3.13 Future Implications 29 3.14 Conclusion 29 4 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management 31 Kshama Patel, Jasmine Primus, Carina Copley, and Yashwant V. Pathak 4.1 Introduction 31 4.2 Transmission Dynamics 33 4.3 Disease Management 34 4.4 Morbidity 36 4.5 Intersections 37 4.6 Conclusion 39 5 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies 42 Abdullah Abdelkawi, Zaineb Zinoune, Aliyah Slim, and Yashwant V. Pathak 5.1 Background 42 5.2 Causative Microorganisms 43 5.3 Strategies for Containment 45 5.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza 46 6 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges 50 Lucy Mohapatra, Geeta Patel, Alok S. Tripathi, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Sambit K. Parida, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya 6.1 Introduction 50 6.2 Current Status – Swine Flu 51 6.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu 53 6.4 Diagnosis 55 6.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu 57 6.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu 58 6.7 Conclusion 60 7 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat 66 Ofosua Adi-Dako, Awo A. Kwapong, and Selorme Adukpo 7.1 Introduction 66 7.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection 66 7.3 Infection and Pathophysiology 67 7.4 Immune Response and Vaccine 68 7.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management 69 7.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus 69 7.7 The Way Forward 70 8 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever 72 Manish P. Patel, Vaishnavi M. Oza, Hemangi B. Tanna, Avinash D. Khadela, Praful D. Bharadia, and Jayvadan K. Patel 8.1 Introduction 72 8.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes 74 8.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus 74 8.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever 75 8.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever 75 8.6 Clinical Manifestation 76 8.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever 78 8.8 Prevention of Disease 80 8.9 Management of Dengue Disease 83 8.10 Conclusion 85 9 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions 87 Bibhuti B. Kakoti, Lawandashisha Nongrang, Chinmoyee Borah, Monali Lahiri, Mainak Ghosh, and Ankit Choudhary 9.1 Introduction 87 9.2 Geographical Distribution 88 9.3 The Virus and its Genome 89 9.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis 90 9.5 Relationship Between Host-Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection 92 9.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus 93 9.7 Management of West Nile Virus 95 9.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment 96 9.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction 98 10 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade 106 Anita Patel, Nisarg Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel 10.1 Introduction 106 10.2 Life Cycle 106 10.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus 108 10.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections 111 10.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology 113 10.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection 114 10.7 Treatment and Prevention 116 10.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus 121 10.9 Summary and Conclusion 122 11 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease 129 Emmanuel K. Ofori and Eric N.Y. Nyarko 11.1 Introduction 129 11.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV 134 11.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) 135 11.4 Conclusion 142 12 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease 145 Mehul Chorawala, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Nirjari Kothari, and Aayushi Shah 12.1 Introduction 145 12.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools 151 12.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease 152 12.4 Conclusion and Future Directions 158 13 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) 164 Orhan E. Arslan 13.1 Introduction 164 13.2 Discussion 165 13.3 Conclusions 174 14 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management 181 Chandrakanta, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, and Archana N. Sah 14.1 Introduction 181 14.2 Epidemiology 184 14.3 Clinical Manifestation 186 14.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever 189 14.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever 190 14.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs 191 14.7 Non-Pharmacological Treatment 191 14.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms 191 14.9 Future Prospectives 193 14.10 Conclusion 193 15 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update 199 Abigail Aning, Kwasi A. Bugyei, Bismarck A. Hottor, and Seth K. Amponsah 15.1 Background 199 15.2 Geographical Distribution 199 15.3 Mode of Transmission 199 15.4 Reservoir Hosts 199 15.5 Incidence and Prevalence 200 15.6 Clinical Presentation 200 15.7 Diagnostic Methods 201 15.8 Recent Clinical Reports 201 15.9 Management and Treatment 202 15.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions 203 15.11 Conclusions 204 16 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond 207 Aparoop Das, Kalyani Pathak, Manash P. Pathak, Urvashee Gogoi, and Riya Saikia 16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease 207 16.2 Modes of Transmission 208 16.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management 209 16.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management 214 16.5 Conclusion 215 17 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends 220 Vivek Patel, Dhara Patel, Grishma Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel 17.1 Introduction 220 17.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease 221 17.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease 222 17.4 Lifecycle of T. cruzi 222 17.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease 223 17.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease 224 17.7 Conclusion 231 18 Legionnaires’ Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 237 Julia Wang, Neha Chintapally, Meera Nagpal, Anjali Mahapatra, and Charles Preuss 18.1 History of Legionella spp. 237 18.2 Bacterial Life Cycle 238 18.3 Pathogenicity 238 18.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways 239 18.5 Ubiquitin Pathways 240 18.6 Legionella-Amoeba Interactions 241 18.7 Risk Factors 241 18.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing 241 18.9 Symptoms 242 18.10 Long-Term Effects and Co-morbidities 243 18.11 Prevention 243 18.12 Pharmacology 244 18.13 Treatments in Development 245 18.14 New Technologies 246 18.15 Conclusion 248 19 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat 253 Komal Parmar and Jayvadan K. Patel 19.1 Introduction 253 19.2 World-Wide Babesiosis Human Infection 253 19.3 Life Cycle and Transmission 255 19.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis 256 19.5 Management of Babesiosis 256 19.6 Conclusion 257 20 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria 261 Priya Patel, Arti Bagada, and Nasir Vadia 20.1 History of Malaria 261 20.2 Types of Malaria 262 20.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally 264 20.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies 267 20.5 Diagnosis and Treatment 270 20.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria 272 20.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment 273 20.8 Challenges for National Governments 275 20.9 Malaria Eradication Programme 276 20.10 Conclusion 278 21 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management 283 Subhasundar Maji, Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Debankini Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, and Sandipan Dasgupta 21.1 Introduction 283 21.2 Epidemiology 284 21.3 What Is Cryptosporidium? 284 21.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection 286 21.5 Diagnostic Methods 287 21.6 Management 288 21.7 Prevention and Control 291 21.8 Future Perspectives 293 21.9 Conclusion 294 22 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 297 Ismaila Adams, Awo A. Kwapong, Eugene Boafo, Elizabeth Twum, and Seth K. Amponsah 22.1 Introduction 297 22.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations 298 22.3 Microbiology of Leishmania 299 22.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis 301 22.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis 303 22.6 Drug Resistance in Leishmania 304 22.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania 305 22.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs 306 22.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs 308 22.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention 309 22.11 Conclusion 309 23 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management 314 Mehul Chorawala, Nirjari Kothari, Aayushi Shah, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati 23.1 Introduction 314 23.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis 319 23.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis 321 23.4 Need for Novel Treatment 324 23.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti-Toxoplasma Activity 324 23.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329 24 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management 337 Sachin P. Bhatt, Avani N. Joshi, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati Abbreviations 337 24.1 Introduction 337 24.2 Immunologic Diagnosis 341 24.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form 344 24.4 Conclusion 347 25 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends 351 Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Sandipan Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, Subhasundar Maji, and Shwetlana Bandyopadhyay 25.1 Background 351 25.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection 351 25.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis 352 25.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis 353 25.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals 356 25.6 The Nematode: Trichinella sp. 358 25.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans 363 25.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology 363 25.10 Conclusion 364 26 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management 368 Emmanuel K. Ofori and Akua O. Forson 26.1 Introduction 368 26.2 Parasitology Diagnosis 371 26.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies 371 26.4 Radiology 372 26.5 Management 372 26.6 Conclusion 374 27 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions 378 Lucy Mohapatra, Alok S. Tripathi, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya 27.1 Introduction 378 27.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 379 27.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 379 27.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 383 27.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 385 27.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 387 27.7 Conclusion 389 28 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “Thelaziasis” 396 Rihana B. Patnool, Badrud D. Mohammad, Vishwas H. Nagendra, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Muhasina K. Muhamadkazim, and Sivasankaran Ponnusankar 28.1 Introduction 396 28.2 Causative Agents 397 28.3 Morphology 399 28.4 Mode of Transmission 402 28.5 Hosts and Vectors 403 28.6 Life Cycle of Thelazia Species 405 28.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species 406 28.8 Geographical Distribution 406 28.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis 407 28.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis 407 28.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis 407 28.12 Precautionary Measures 408 28.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis 408 28.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control 409 28.15 Conclusion 409 29 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 411 Verner N. Orish 29.1 Introduction 411 29.2 History 412 29.3 Parasite 413 29.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) 416 29.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma 417 29.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission 418 29.7 Pathogenesis of HAT 419 29.8 Clinical Manifestations 420 29.9 Diagnosis 420 29.10 Treatment 421 29.11 Control and Prevention 423 29.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention 424 29.13 Conclusion 424 30 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions 428 Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak 30.1 Introduction 428 30.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases 429 30.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases 430 30.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions 431 30.5 Future Directions 433 30.6 Conclusion 434 References 434 Index 438