Religion Today

Chapter 1: Welcome to the “Worlds” of Religion Orientation: The “Worlds” of Religion Case Study: Sightseeing and Tourism Exploration: Inquiry into the Challenge of Learning Retain or Revise Our Networks of Understanding? Investigation: Major Trends in the Development of Religious Studies The Naturalist Approach The Founders of the Sociology and Psychology Evaluation of the Naturalist Approaches The Religionist Approach The Controversy Over the Naturalist and Religionist Approaches The Analytic Study of Religion Evaluation of the Evolution of Religious Studies The Characteristics of Religious Studies Concluding Proposal: Religious Studies and Critical Thinking Chapter 2: Defining Religion Orientation: The Government’s Definition of Religion The Supreme Court and the Focus on Belief Exploration: The Challenge of Defining Religion Etymology: The Original Meaning The Reformation and the “Age of Discovery” “Natural Religion” and the Enlightenment Immanuel Kant and Essentialism Evaluation of the Definition’s Development The Etymology of the Term The Age of Discovery’s View of Religion The Enlightenment’s View of Religion The Concept of Religious Freedom Essentialism Investigation: Alternatives to Essentialism Functionalism: From What It Is to What It Does Family Resemblance Theory Concluding Proposal: Contextualizing the Definition of Religion The Challenge to Binary Thinking Religion as a Heuristic Device Chapter 3: The Hijab, a Study in Critical Thinking Orientation Forms of Muslim Hijab Discrimination against Wearing Hijab in America Prohibition in France and Elsewhere Compulsion in Iran and Afghanistan Protests: Some for and Some Against Wearing Hijab Exploration: The Research Question and Frames of Reference Investigation: Frames for the Interpretation of Wearing Hijab Colonialism (Orientalism) Feminism Islamism Conclusions Evaluation: Analysis of the Reasons for Wearing Hijab The Key of Personal Agency Concluding Proposal: The Resolution of the Seeming Contradiction The Necessary Tools for Analysis Chapter 4: Religious Experience and Spirituality Orientation: The Origin and Definition of “Spiritual but Not Religious” The Definition of “Spirituality” Is SBNR a Rationalization or a New Form of Religiosity? Exploration: The Pioneers of the Study of Religious Experience William James: Healthy-Mindedness or the “Sick Soul” Rudolf Otto: Non-Rational Experience and True Reality Mircea Eliade: The Nostalgia for the Sacred Investigation: The Classical Approaches Common Characteristics of Religious Experience Criticisms of the Sui Generis Characteristics Theories that Revise the Classical Approaches Concluding Proposal: SBNR and the Future of Religion A New Trend of Religiosity or an Excuse for Non-Participation? Evaluation: A Case Study in Attribution The Theistic Storehouse of Attributions Theist Organized Religion Is the Key to the Future The Store of Attributions Available to the SBNR Chapter 5: Sacred Technology, Symbol Orientation: The Treatment of Human Remains and Objects from Ancient Graves The Controversy Exploration: Scientific Artifacts or Sacred Heritage? Special Treatment in Museums Complaints about the Limits on Access A Difference in Worldviews The Research Question: Nature and Interpretation of Symbols Which Museum Artifact Is Sacred? Investigation: The Variety, Definition, and Characteristics of Symbols What Symbols Represent: The Zoroastrian Sacred Cord Types of Religious Symbols What Symbols Represent and What They Mean Evaluation: The Relationship of Symbols to What They Symbolize Replaceable or Irreplaceable Possessing Impermanent Power Useful Up to a Point Symbols Must Be Discarded Concluding Proposal: A Symbolic Approach to Sacred Objects Critique of the Insider/Outsider Distinction The Role of Religious Studies in Interpreting Religious Symbols Chapter 6: Sacred Technology, Myth Orientation: The Gift of the Sacred Pipe: Oglala Sioux Native America The Research Question: Developing a Suitable Understanding of Myth Exploration: The Rationalist Study of Myth Evaluation of the Rationalist Interpretation of Myths The Romantic Interpretation of Myth The Traditional versus the Modern Mind: Cassirer Two Tiers of Reality The Psychological Approach to Myth Myths and Dreams: Carl Jung The Heroic Journey: Joseph Campbell Investigation: Presuppositions of the Romantic Approach Two Forms of Consciousness: Cassirer Myth vs. Science: Eliade Access to Myth Through Psychology The Journey into the Psyche Myth as Ideology Evaluation of the Idea of Myth as Ideology Concluding Proposal: Understanding the Role of Myths in Life The Goal of Finding an Acceptable Way of Interpreting Myths Chapter 7: Sacred Technology, Ritual Orientation: The Case of the Hopi Kachinas The Definition and Characteristics of Ritual Exploration: The Nature of Ritual Types of Rituals Investigation: The Interpretation of Ritual The Relationship of Myth to Ritual Ritual as Expressive: Harrison The Ritual System as Logical: Evans-Pritchard Ritual as Sacred Place: Jonathan Z Smith Evaluation of the Theories of Interpreting Ritual The Emotional Character of Ritual: Harrison The Logic of Ritual Ritual and Sacred Space: Johnathan Z Smith Western Categories of Interpretation Concluding Proposal: Interpreting Symbols, Myths, and Rituals in Context The Social Context of Sacred Objects The General and the Particular Meaning in the Social Context The Ritual Context Principles of Interpreting Symbols and Myths in Their Ritual and Social Contexts Lessons Learned Chapter 8: The Justification of Belief Orientation: Evidence and Belief Exploration: The Question of the Justification of Belief The Definition of Belief Investigation: Approaches to the Justification of Religious Belief Fideism: Belief in (Sincere) Belief Appeal to Revelation from Without: Hinduism, Amana Colonies, Islam Appeal to Enlightenment from Within: Zen Buddhism Appeal to Authority Appeal to Religious Experience According to John Hick Evaluation of Approaches to the Justification of Belief Appeals to Revelation/Enlightenment and Authority Evaluation of the Appeal to Experience Evaluation of the Evidentialist Approach Concluding Proposal for Study: The Authority of Tradition Scripture, a Combination of Types of Authority The Origin and Development of Selected Scriptures Belief Justified by Its Practice Chapter 9: Religious Beliefs and the Questions They Answer Orientation: The Question for Study Exploration: A Method of Comprehending Religious Beliefs An Example of the Method: The Origin and Order of the Universe Investigation: Freedom and Destiny Eastern Views of Freedom as Liberation The Focus of Western Views: Freedom as the Ability to Make Choices Evaluation of the Answers to the Question of Freedom and Destiny Investigation: Suffering Suffering as the Universal Condition of Human Life Suffering as the Experience of Mental/Emotional Distress The Problem of Theodicy Answers to the Question of Suffering Evaluation of the Theories of Suffering Evaluation of the Method of Question and Answer in General From Studying Beliefs to Focusing on Believers Concluding Proposal: Beliefs are More Than Assertions Staking One’s Life on Belief Understanding Beliefs from the Viewpoint of the Believer Refocus of Study from Bodies of Beliefs to Meaning Systems Chapter 10: Religion in the Digital Age Orientation: Digital Religion Traits of Digital Religion Types of New Religious Movements Exploration: The Assumption that Religions are Unchanging The Challenge of Digital Religion to Conventional Assumptions Investigation: The Dynamics of Change in Religions and their Beliefs Changes in Practice and Corresponding Changes in Beliefs NRMs are Models of the Change of Beliefs Characteristics of New Religious Movements Charismatic Leaders as Agents for Change in Religion Evaluation: What Makes the Work of Charismatic Leaders Lasting? Concluding Proposal: How Digital Religion Stimulates Change in Religion The Key to the Charismatic Leadership of Digital Religion The Survival of New Religious Movements and Digital Forms of Religion The Wildcard of Artificial Intelligence The Potential Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Religion Will Robots Develop New Religious Movements? Conclusion: What Will Last? Chapter 11: Inside the Religious Brain Orientation: A New Horizon for the Study of Religious Experience The Development of the Neuroscience of Religion: Brain Scans The Pioneers The Expanding Field of the Brain Imagery of Religious Practice Results of the Brain Scans of Religious Practices Protests and Prospects: The Response to the Findings Exploration: The Challenge of Neuroscience The Findings of Neuroscience The Question Focus: How to Develop a Neuroscientific Theory of Religious Experience Investigation: A Reconsideration of Past Assumptions of Religious Experience Confirmation of the Revisions to Past Assumptions: Danish Study Concluding Proposal: Principles for a Theory of Religious Experience The Plasticity of the Brain The Emergent Character of Religious Experience The Relationship between the Brain and Mind The Interaction of Brain, Mind, and Culture The Emergence of Religious Experience: Bottom Up and Top Down Evaluation of the Proposed Theory Critical Realism and Possible Realities Beyond Mental Processes Chapter 12: Religion and Violence Orientation: The Perplexing Relationship of Religion and Violence Terrorism Domestic Terrorism But Is Terrorism “Religious”? Exploration: Probing the Relationship Between Religion and Violence Three Levels of Violence The Categories of Religious Association with Violence: Lincoln The Question for Study: How to Explain the Association of Religion and Violence Investigation: Survey of Approaches that Explain Religious Violence Religions are Violent by Nature The Argument from History Absolutism, the Root Cause of Violence: Dawkins Why Religious Moderates are Still to Blame Why Is Religion So Widespread When It Is So Harmful? The Role of Religion in Justifying State Violence: Armstrong Religion Is Intrinsically Violent Because It Promotes Group Identity Group Identity Promotes Difference Leading to Conflict: Wellman and Tokuno Religion Makes Violence Legitimate Only Some Religions are Violent The Combination of Religion and Nationalism: Three Types Cosmic War (Apocalyptic) Ideas Enflame Religious Nationalism: Jurgensmeyer Religious Exclusivism Breeds Intolerance and Conflict: Eck Only False Religions are Violent Chapter 13: Evaluating the Theories of Religious Violence Orientation: Critical Thinking about Theories Evaluation: Analysis of the Theories Reviewed in the Last Chapter Analysis of the Theories of the New Atheists Analysis of the Theory that Group Identity Makes Religion Violent Analysis of the Theory of Cosmic Violence (Apocalypticism) Analysis of the Claim that Religious Types Make the Difference Analysis of the Theory of the Pluralism Project Analysis of the Theories of False Religion and Essentialism Concluding Proposal: A Multiple Conditions Approach Building the Proposal: Types and Conditions Leadership, the Key to War and Peace Conditions for Violence Evaluating the Concluding Proposal: Empirical and Practical Tests Multiple Conditions that Correlate with Violence: Isaacs Factors Supporting the Militant Leadership Theory A “Take Away” from our Discussion: The Crucial Role of Religious Studies Chapter 14: Religion and Justice Orientation: The Cry for Justice Exploration: Justice as Dharma Investigation: Hindu Justice in a Well-Ordered Society Exploration: Karma and Reincarnation Investigation: Justice as Karma Karmic Parallels in Christianity A Question for Reflection: Competing Conceptions of Karma Investigation: Retributive Karma Retributive Karma as Blaming the Victim Investigation: What if Everything Happens for a Reason? And the Reason is Always Just? Investigation: Can there be Justice if there are No “Individuals”? Investigation: Justice as Non-Violence from a Jain and Buddhist Interpretation Everything is Interconnected Investigation: Justice as Community (Including Nature) with Indigenous Interpretations of Justice Harmony over Hierarchy Collision between Indigenous and Western Conceptions of Justice Concluding Proposal: Application to Current Issues and Evaluation in the Next Chapter Chapter 15: Religion, Justice, and Contemporary Moral Issues Orientation: Justice and Identity (and Identity Politics) Identity Politics and Affirmative Action Identity Politics and “Black Lives Matter” Backlash to Identity Politics The Original Identity Politics: Religion and American Slavery Investigation: Stereotypes, Implicit Bias, and Oppression Evaluation: Stereotypes are Necessary (and Sometimes Accurate!) Evaluation: Stereotyping is Neither Necessary Nor Accurate Orientation: Justice and the Role of Women in Society Women and Men Must Play their Respective Roles in Society Social Roles of Men and Women are Neither Natural nor Divinely Created Investigation: Justice and Abortion Rights of the Unborn: The Fetus is a Person with Full Human Rights Rights of the Unborn: The Fetus is a Person but Abortion is Still Permissible The Fetus is Not (Yet) a Person: Potential and Actual Rights Investigation: Indigenous Views on Personhood and Rights Rights for Groups, Individuals, or Both? Investigation: Religious Conceptions of Justice in Secular Societies The Traditional View: If Secular and Religious Conceptions of Justice Conflict, Stick with the Religious Evaluation of the Traditional View The Standard View: If Secular and Religious Conceptions of Justice Conflict, Stick with the Secular Evaluation of the Standard View Response to Investigations: Expand Our Conception of Reasoning and Argument Concluding Proposal: Argument as Persuasion, But also Collaboration, and Other Things as Well Conclusion Appendix: The Methods of this Book Bibliography Index About the Authors