Reception of Weak Radio Signals from Space

List of Symbols ix List of Abbreviations xv Preface xix Acknowledgments xxv 1 Thermal Noise 1 Reference 3 2 Properties of Antennas 5 2.1 Absolute Black-Body Radiation 5 2.2 Brightness and Noise Temperature of Antennas 6 2.3 Near Field and Far Field 8 2.4 Directivity and Antenna Gain 10 2.5 Polarization 12 References 14 3 Two-Port Network Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise Temperature 15 3.1 Noise Figure of Radio Frequency Attenuator 16 3.2 Noise Bandwidth 17 3.3 System Noise Temperature 17 3.4 Figure of Merit G/T 18 References 19 4 Communication Equation 21 References 23 5 Wave Propagation 25 5.1 Free Space Wave Propagation 25 5.2 Influence of the Atmosphere 26 5.2.1 Precipitation Cloud in Front of Antenna 26 5.2.2 Ionosphere Influence 28 5.3 Wave Propagation by Reflection 30 References 31 6 Measuring the Figure of Merit G/T of the Receiving System 33 6.1 Y-Factor 33 6.2 Measuring G/T Using the Moon 36 6.3 Measuring G/T Using the Sun 40 6.4 Measuring G/T Using Other Space Objects 48 References 49 7 Parabolic Antennas 51 7.1 Reflector Geometry and Its Irradiation 51 7.1.1 Antenna with Rotationally Symmetric Reflector 52 7.1.2 Antenna with Offset Reflector 53 7.1.3 Antennas with Dual Optics 55 7.1.4 Accuracy of Parabolic Reflectors 56 7.2 Feeds 56 7.2.1 Open Circular Waveguide in 10 GHz Band 58 7.2.2 Open Circular Waveguide with Simple Choke 59 7.2.3 Scalar Feed 61 7.2.4 Horn with Rings 62 7.2.5 Horn for 10 GHz and Offset Reflector with f /d = 0.8 63 7.2.6 Horn for 24 GHz and Offset Reflector with f /d = 0.8 64 7.2.7 Horn for 24 GHz and Offset Reflector with f /d = 0.6 66 7.2.8 Standard Horn for 1.3 GHz and Offset Reflector with f /d = 0.8 68 References 71 8 High-Frequency Transmission Lines – Waveguides 73 8.1 Rectangular Waveguides 75 8.1.1 Reactance Elements in a Rectangular Waveguide 77 8.2 Circular Waveguides 80 8.3 Coaxial Transmission Lines 82 8.4 Planar Transmission Lines 84 8.5 Nonreciprocal Microwave Lines 86 References 92 9 Microwave Receivers 93 9.1 Low-Noise Amplifiers 98 9.1.1 Noise Matching 100 9.1.2 Cooled Amplifiers 100 9.1.3 Measurement of Noise Figure 104 9.1.4 Low-Noise Amplifier for 1.3 GHz 109 9.1.5 Low-Noise Amplifier for 10 GHz 117 References 120 10 Local Oscillators 121 10.1 Classification of Frequency Synthesizers 122 10.1.1 Coherent and Incoherent Synthesizers 122 10.1.2 Synthesizers with Direct and Indirect Synthesis 122 10.2 Direct Digital Frequency Synthesizers – DDFS 123 10.2.1 Basic Description 123 10.2.2 Spectral Properties of DDFS 124 10.3 Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizers 128 10.3.1 Time and Frequency Domain Description of a Phase-Locked Loop 128 10.3.2 Order and Type of Phase-Locked Loop 132 10.3.3 Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizers 132 10.3.4 Phase-Locked Loop Stability 133 10.3.5 Classification of Phase-Locked Loops 133 10.3.6 Spectral Properties of PLL Synthesizers 134 10.3.7 Allan’s Variance 136 10.3.8 Circuitry of Modern PLL Synthesizers 138 10.3.9 Oscillators 139 10.3.10 Phase Frequency Detectors – PFD 141 10.3.11 Frequency Dividers 142 10.3.12 Loop Filters 143 10.4 Direct Digital Synthesizer with AD9951EP 145 10.5 Frequency Synthesizer for Microwave Devices 147 References 151 11 Microwave Transmitters 153 11.1 UHF Band Power Amplifier 300 W 154 11.2 X-Band Power Amplifiers 157 11.2.1 Single-Stage X-Band 4 W Power Amplifier 160 11.2.2 X-Band 20 W Power Amplifier 161 11.2.3 X-Band 50 W Power Amplifier 161 11.2.3.1 Calculation of Cooling 167 References 173 12 Communication by Lunar Surface Reflection 175 12.1 Lunar Surface as a Reflecting Surface 175 12.1.1 Reflected Signal Spectrum Broadening 176 12.1.2 Doppler Shift 177 12.1.3 Polarization of Signals 178 12.2 Digital Communication 179 12.2.1 Jt 65 180 12.2.2 Jt 4 180 12.2.3 Qra 64 181 12.2.4 Q 65 183 12.3 Parameters of Communication Devices 185 12.3.1 Antennas 186 12.3.2 System Noise Temperature 187 12.3.3 Echo 187 12.3.4 Accuracy and Stability of Frequency 192 12.3.5 Doppler Shift Compensation 193 12.4 Conclusion 194 References 194 13 Radio Communication with Interplanetary Spacecrafts 197 13.1 Terrestrial Segment for Deep Space Communication 197 13.2 Interplanetary Spacecrafts 200 13.2.1 Voyager 200 13.2.2 Cassini-Huygens 204 13.2.3 New Horizons 205 13.2.4 Mars Odyssey and Reconnaissance Orbiter 207 13.2.5 Spacecrafts at Lagrange Points 207 References 208 14 Conclusion 209 Index 211