Principles of Genetics

Chapter 1 : The Science of Genetics 1 The Personal Genome 1 an Invitation 2 Three Great Milestones in Genetics 2 Mendel: Genes And The Rules Of Inheritance 2 Watson And Crick: The Structure Of DNA 3 The Human Genome Project: Sequencing DNA And Cataloging Genes 4 DNA as the Genetic Material 6 DNA Replication: Propagating Genetic Information 6 Gene Expression: Using Genetic Information 7 Mutation: Changing Genetic Information 9 Genetics and Evolution 10 Levels of Genetic analysis 11 Classical Genetics 11 Molecular Genetics 11 Population Genetics 12 Genetics in the World: applications of Genetics to human Endeavors 12 Genetics In Agriculture 12 Genetics In Medicine 14 Genetics In Society 15 Chapter 2 : Cellular Reproduction 18 Dolly 18 Cells and Chromosomes 19 The Cellular Environment 19 Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells 20 Chromosomes: Where Genes Are Located 20 Cell Division 23 Mitosis 24 Meiosis 27 Meiosis: An Overview 27 Meiosis I 27 Solve It : how Much DNA in human Meiotic Cells 27 Meiosis II And The Outcomes Of Meiosis 31 Solve It : How Many Chromosome Combinations in Sperm 31 Life Cycles of Some Model Genetic Organisms 32 Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, Baker’s Yeast 32 Arabidopsis Thaliana, A Flowering Plant 33 Mus Musculus, The Mouse 34 Problem-Solving Skills Counting Chromosomes and Chromatids 36 Chapter 3 : Mendelism: The Basic Principles of Inheritance 40 The Birth of Genetics: A Scientific Revolution 40 Mendel’s Study of heredity 41 Mendel’s Experimental Organism, The Garden Pea 41 Monohybrid Crosses: The Principles of Dominance And Segregation 42 Dihybrid Crosses: The Principle of Independent Assortment 44 Applications of Mendel’s principles 46 The Punnett Square Method 46 The Forked-Line Method 46 The Probability Method 47 Solve It : Using probabilities in a Genetic problem 48 Testing Genetic hypotheses 48 Two Examples: Data From Mendel And Devries 49 The Chi-Square Test 49 Solve It : Using the Chi-Square test 52 Mendelian principles in human Genetics 52 Pedigrees 53 Mendelian Segregation In Human Families 54 Genetic Counseling 54 Problem-Solving Skills Making Predictions From Pedigrees 56 Chapter 4 : Extensions of Mendelism 62 Genetics Grows beyond Mendel’s Monastery Garden 62 Allelic Variation and Gene Function 63 Incomplete Dominance and Codominance 63 Multiple Alleles 64 Allelic Series 65 Testing Gene Mutations for Allelism 65 Solve It:The Test for Allelism 66 Variation among the Effects of Mutations 66 Genes Function to Produce Polypeptides 67 Why Are Some Mutations Dominant and Others Recessive? 68 Gene Action: From Genotype to Phenotype 69 Influence of the Environment 69 Environmental Effects on the Expression of Human Genes 70 Penetrance and Expressivity 70 Gene Interactions 71 Epistasis 71 Epistasis and Genetic Pathways 72 Pleiotropy 74 Problem-Solving Skills Going from Pathways to Phenotypic Ratios 75 Inbreeding: Another Look at Pedigrees 76 The Effects of Inbreeding 76 Genetic Analysis of Inbreeding 77 Uses Of The Inbreeding Coefficient 80 Solve It : Compound Inbreeding 80 Measuring Genetic Relationships 81 Chapter 5 : The Chromosomal Basis of Mendelism 88 Sex, Chromosomes, and Genes 88 Chromosomes 89 Chromosome Number 89 Sex Chromosomes 89 The Chromosome Theory of Heredity 91 Experimental Evidence Linking the Inheritance of Genes to Chromosomes 91 Nondisjunction as Proof of the Chromosome Theory 92 The Chromosomal Basis of Mendel’s Principles of Segregation and Independent Assortment 94 Solve It : Sex Chromosome Nondisjunction 94 Problem-Solving Skills Tracking X-Linked and Autosomal Inheritance 96 Sex-Linked Genes in Humans 97 Hemophilia, an X-Linked Blood-Clotting Disorder 97 Color Blindness, an X-Linked Vision Disorder 97 Genes on the Human Y Chromosome 99 Genes on Both the X and Y Chromosomes 99 SOLVE IT Calculating the Risk for Hemophilia 99 Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination 99 Sex Determination in Humans 100 Sex Determination in Drosophila 101 Sex Determination in Other Animals 101 Dosage Compensation of X-Linked Genes 103 Hyperactivation of X-linked Genes in Male Drosophila 103 Inactivation of X-linked Genes in Female Mammals 103 Chapter 6 : Variation in Chromosome Number and Structure 109 Chromosomes, Agriculture, and Civilization 109 Cytological Techniques 110 Analysis of Mitotic Chromosomes 110 The Human Karyotype 112 Cytogenetic Variation: An Overview 113 Polyploidy 114 Sterile Polyploids 114 Fertile Polyploids 115 Tissue-Specific Polyploidy and Polyteny 116 Solve It : Chromosome Pairing in Polyploids 116 Aneuploidy 118 Trisomy in Humans 119 Monosomy 120 Problem-Solving Skills : Tracing Sex Chromosome Nondisjunction 122 Deletions and Duplications of Chromosome Segments 122 Rearrangements of Chromosome Structure 124 Inversions 124 Translocations 125 Compound Chromosomes and Robertsonian Translocations 126 Solve It : Pollen Abortion in Translocation Heterozygotes 127 Chapter 7 : Linkage, Crossing Over, and Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes 133 The World’s First Chromosome Map 133 Linkage, Recombination, and Crossing Over 134 Early Evidence for Linkage and Recombination 134 Crossing Over as the Physical Basis of Recombination 136 Evidence That Crossing Over Causes Recombination 137 Chiasmata and the Time of Crossing Over 138 Chromosome Mapping 139 Crossing Over as a Measure of Genetic Distance 139 Recombination Mapping with a Two-Point Testcross 140 Recombination Mapping with a Three-Point Testcross 140 Solve It : Mapping Two Genes with Testcross Data 141 Problem-Solving Skills Using a Genetic Map to Predict the Outcome of a Cross 144 Recombination Frequency and Genetic Map Distance 144 Cytogenetic Mapping 146 Localizing Genes Using Deletions and Duplications 146 Genetic Distance and Physical Distance 147 Solve It : Cytological Mapping of a Drosophila Gene 148 Linkage Analysis in Humans 148 An Example: Linkage Between Blood Groups And The Nail-Patella Syndrome 149 Detecting Linkage With Molecular Markers 150 Recombination and Evolution 151 Evolutionary Significance of Recombination 151 Suppression of Recombination by Inversions 152 Chapter 8 : The Genetics of Bacteria and Their Viruses 161 Multi - Drug-Resistant Bacteria: A Ticking Timebomb? 161 Viruses and Bacteria in Genetics 162 The Genetics of Viruses 163 Bacteriophage T4 163 Bacteriophage Lambda 164 The Genetics of Bacteria 167 Mutant Genes in Bacteria 168 Unidirectional Gene Transfer in Bacteria 169 Mechanisms of Genetic Exchange in Bacteria 170 Transformation 171 Mechanism Of Transformation 172 Conjugation 173 Using Conjugation To Map E. Coli Genes 175 Plasmids and Episomes 177 Problem-Solving Skills Mapping Genes Using Conjugation Data 178 F Factors and Sexduction 179 Transduction 180 Solve It : How Can You Map Closely Linked Genes  Using Partial Diploids? 181 Evolutionary Significance Of Genetic Exchange In Bacteria 183 Solve It : How Do Bacterial Genomes Evolve? 183 Chapter 9 : DNA and the Molecular Structure of Chromosomes 189 Discovery of Nuclein 189 Proof That Genetic Information Is Stored in DNA and RNA 190 Proof That DNA Mediates Transformation 190 Proof That DNA Carries the Genetic Information in Bacteriophage T2 191 Proof That RNA Stores the Genetic Information in Some Viruses 193 The Structures of DNA and Rna 194 Nature of the Chemical Subunits in DNA and RNA 194 DNA Structure: The Double Helix 195 Problem-Solving Skills Calculating base Content in DNA 199 DNA Structure: Alternate Forms of the Double Helix 199 Solve It : What Are Some Important Features of Double-Stranded DNA? 200 DNA Structure: Negative Supercoils In Vivo 200 Chromosome Structure in Viruses and Prokaryotes 201 Chromosome Structure in Eukaryotes 203 Chemical Composition of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 203 One Large DNA Molecule per Chromosome 204 Nucleosomes 205 Packaging Of Chromatin In Eukaryotic Chromosomes 207 Solve It : How Many Nucleosomes in One Human X Chromosome? 207 Special Features of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 208 Complexity Of DNA In Chromosomes: Unique And Repetitive Sequences 209 Centromeres 211 Telomeres 211 Chapter 10 : Replication of DNA and Chromosomes 217 Monozygotic Twins: Are They Identical? 217 Basic Features of DNA Replication In Vivo 218 Semiconservative Replication Of DNA Molecules 218 Semi conservative replication of eukaryotic chromosomes 220 Origins of Replication 221 Solve It : Semiconservative Replication of DNA 221 Problem-Solving Skills Predicting Patterns of 3 H Labeling in Chromosomes 223 Replication Forks 224 Bidirectional Replication 225 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes 228 Continuous Synthesis of One Strand; Discontinuous Synthesis of the Other Strand 228 Covalent Closure of Nicks in DNA by DNA Ligase 229 Initiation of DNA Replication 230 Initiation of DNA Chains with RNA Primers 230 Unwinding DNA with Helicases, DNA-Binding Proteins, and Topoisomerases 232 Multiple DNA Polymerases 235 Proofreading 237 The Primosome and the Replisome 238 Rolling-Circle Replication 240 Unique Aspects of Eukaryotic Chromosome Replication 241 The Cell Cycle 241 Multiple Replicons per Chromosome 241 Two or More DNA Polymerases at a Single Replication Fork 242 Solve It : Understanding Replication of the Human X Chromosome 243 Duplication of Nucleosomes at Replication Forks 243 Telomerase: Replication of Chromosome Termini 244 Telomere Length and Aging in Humans 245 Chapter 11 : Transcription and RNA Processing 252 Storage and Transmission of Information with Simple Codes 252 Transfer of Genetic Information: The Central Dogma 253 Transcription and Translation 253 Five Types of RNA Molecules 254 The Process of Gene Expression 255 An mRNA Intermediary 255 General Features of RNA Synthesis 257 Problem-Solving Skills Distinguishing RNAs Transcribed from Viral and Host DNAs 258 Transcription in Prokaryotes 259 RNA Polymerases: Complex Enzymes 259 Initiation of RNA Chains 260 Elongation of RNA Chains 260 Termination of RNA Chains 261 Concurrent Transcription, Translation, and mRNA Degradation 262 Transcription and RNA Processing in Eukaryotes 263 Five RNA Polymerases/Five Sets of Genes 263 Initiation of RNA Chains 265 Solve It : Initiation of Transcription by RNA Polymerase II in Eukaryotes 265 RNA Chain Elongation and the Addition of 5 Methyl Guanosine Caps 266 Termination by Chain Cleavage and the Addition of 3 Poly(A) Tails 267 Solve It : Formation of the 3 -Terminus of an RNA Polymerase II Transcript 268 RNA Editing: Altering the Information Content of mRNA Molecules 268 Interrupted Genes in Eukaryotes: Exons and Introns 269 Evidence For Introns 270 Some Very Large Eukaryotic Genes 271 Introns: Biological Significance? 271 Removal of Intron Sequences by RNA Splicing 272 Sequence Signals For RNA Splicing 272 tRNA Precursor Splicing: Unique Nuclease and Ligase Activities 273 Autocatalytic Splicing 273 Pre-mRNA Splicing: snRNAs, snRNPs, and the spliceosome 274 Chapter 12 : Translation and the Genetic Code 280 Sickle - Cell Anemia : Devastating Effects of a Single Amino Acid Change 280 Protein Structure 281 Polypeptides: Twenty Different Amino Acid Subunits 281 Proteins: Complex Three-Dimensional Structures 281 Genes Encode Polypeptides 284 Beadle and Tatum: One Gene–One Enzyme 284 Crick and Colleagues: Each Amino Acid In A Polypeptide Is Specified By Three Nucleotides 286 The Components of Polypeptide Synthesis 289 Overview Of Gene Expression 289 Ribosomes 290 Transfer RNAs 292 The Process of Polypeptide Synthesis 294 Polypeptide Chain Initiation 294 Polypeptide Chain Elongation 298 Polypeptide Chain Termination 300 Solve It : Control of Translation in Eukaryotes 300 The Genetic Code 302 Properties of the Genetic Code 302 Deciphering the Code 302 Initiation and Termination Codons 303 A Degenerate and Ordered Code 303 A Nearly Universal Code 305 Problem-Solving Skills Predicting Amino Acid Substitutions Induced by Mutagens 305 Codon-tRNA Interactions 306 Recognition of Codons by tRNAs: The Wobble Hypothesis 306 Suppressor Mutations That Produce tRNAs with Altered Codon Recognition 307 Solve It : Effects of Base-Pair Substitutions in the Coding Region of the HBB Gene 308 Chapter 13 : Mutation, DNA Repair, and Recombination 313 Xeroderma Pigmentosum : Defective Repair of Damaged DNA in Humans 313 Mutation 314 Somatic and Germinal Mutations 314 Spontaneous and Induced Mutations 314 Forward And Reverse Mutations 315 Usually Deleterious and Recessive 315 The Molecular Basis of Mutation 317 Single Base-Pair Changes And Frameshift Mutations 317 Solve It : Nucleotide-Pair Substitutions in the Human HBB Gene 318 Transposon Insertion Mutations 318 Mutations Caused By Expanding Trinucleotide Repeats 319 Mutagenesis 320 Muller’s Demonstration That Mutations Can Be Induced With X-Rays 320 Inducing Mutations With Radiation 321 Inducing Mutations With Chemicals 323 Screening Chemicals For Mutagenicity: The Ames Test 326 Problem-Solving Skills Predicting Amino Acid Changes Induced by Chemical Mutagens 327 Assigning Mutations to Genes by the Complementation Test 329 Lewis’s Test For Allelism 329 Applying The Complementation Test: An Example 331 Solve It : How Can You Assign Mutations to Genes? 331 DNA Repair Mechanisms 333 Light-Dependent Repair 333 Excision Repair 333 Other DNA Repair Mechanisms 334 Inherited Human Diseases With Defects In DNA Repair 336 DNA Recombination Mechanisms 338 Recombination: Cleavage and Rejoining of DNA Molecules 338 Gene Conversion: DNA Repair Synthesis Associated with Recombination 341 Chapter 14 : The Techniques of Molecular Genetics 350 Treatment of Pituitary Dwarfism with Human Growth Hormone 350 Basic Techniques Used to Identify, Amplify, and Clone Genes 351 DNA Cloning: An Overview 351 Restriction Endonucleases 351 Solve It : How Many NotI Restriction Fragments in Chimpanzee DNA? 354 Producing Recombinant DNA Molecules In Vitro 354 Amplification of Recombinant DNA Molecules in Cloning Vectors 354 Cloning Large Genes and Segments of Genomes in BACs, PACs, and YACs 357 Amplification of DNA Sequences by the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 358 Construction and Screening of DNA Libraries 360 Construction of Genomic Libraries 360 Construction of cDNA Libraries 361 Screening DNA Libraries for Genes of Interest 361 Solve It How Can You Clone a Specific NotI Restriction Fragment from the Orangutan Genome? 363 The Molecular Analysis of DNA, RNA, and Protein 364 Analysis of DNAs by Southern Blot Hybridizations 364 Analysis of RNAs by Northern Blot Hybridizations 365 Analysis of RNAs by Reverse Transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) 366 Analysis of Proteins by Western Blot Techniques 368 The Molecular Analysis of Genes and Chromosomes 368 Physical Maps of DNA Molecules Based on Restriction Enzyme Cleavage Sites 369 Nucleotide Sequences of Genes and Chromosomes 370 Problem-Solving Skills Determining the Nucleotide Sequences of Genetic Elements 373 Chapter 15 : Genomics 379 Genomes from Denisova Cave 379 Genomics: An Overview 380 The Scope Of Genomics 380 Genomics Databases 380 Problem-Solving Skills Using Bioinformatics to Investigate DNA Sequences 382 Correlated Genetic, Cytological, and Physical Maps of Chromosomes 382 Genetic, Cytological, and Physical Maps 383 High-Density Genetic Maps of Molecular Markers 384 Contig Maps And Clone Banks 385 Map-Based Cloning Of Genes 387 The Human Genome Project 387 Mapping The Human Genome 388 Sequencing The Human Genome 388 General Features Of The Human Genome 390 Repeated Sequences In The Human Genome 390 Genes In The Human Genome 391 Solve It : What Can You Learn about DNA Sequences Using Bioinformatics? 392 Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms And The Human Hapmap Project 395 RNA and Protein Assays of Genome Functions 397 Microarrays And Gene Chips 397 The Green Fluorescent Protein As A Reporter Of Protein Presence 400 Genome Diversity and Evolution 401 Prokaryotic Genomes 401 A Living Bacterium With A Chemically Synthesized Genome 403 The Genomes Of Mitochondria And Chloroplasts 404 Eukaryotic Genomes 407 Comparative Genomics: A Way To Study Evolution 408 Paleogenomics 409 Solve It What Do We Know about the Mitochondrial Genome of the Extinct Woolly Mammoth? 411 Chapter 16 : Applications of Molecular Genetics 417 Gene Therapy Improves Sight in Child with Congenital Blindness 417 Use of Recombinant DNA Technology to Identify Human Genes and Diagnose Genetic Diseases 418 Huntington’s Disease 418 Problem-Solving Skills Testing for Mutant Alleles that Cause Fragile X Mental Retardation 421 Cystic Fibrosis 421 Molecular Diagnosis of Human Diseases 424 Human Gene Therapy 426 Different Types Of Gene Therapy 426 Gene Therapy Vectors 427 Criteria For Approving Gene Therapy 427 Gene Therapy For Autosomal Immunodeficiency Disease 428 Gene Therapy For X-Linked Immunodeficiency Disease 428 Successful Gene Therapy And Future Prospects 430 DNA Profiling 431 DNA Profiling 431 Paternity Tests 435 Forensic Applications 435 Solve It : How Can DNA Profiles Be Used to Establish Identity? 435 Production of Eukaryotic Proteins in Bacteria 437 Human Growth Hormone 437 Proteins with Industrial Applications 438 Transgenic Animals and Plants 439 Transgenic Animals: Microinjection of DNA into Fertilized Eggs and Transfection of Embryonic Stem Cells 439 Transgenic Plants: The Ti Plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens 440 Reverse Genetics: Dissecting Biological Processes by Inhibiting Gene Expression 442 Knockout Mutations in the Mouse 443 T-DNA and Transposon Insertions 445 RNA Interference 446 Solve It : How Might RNA Interference Be Used to Treat Burkitt’s Lymphoma? 448 Genome Engineering 448 The Crispr/Cas9 System For Cleaving DNA Molecules 448 Targeted Mutagenesis With The Crispr/Cas9 System 450 Deleting, Replacing, And Editing Genes With The Crispr/ Cas9 System 452 Chapter 17 : Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes 459 D’Hérelle’s Dream 459 Strategies for Regulating Genes in Prokaryotes 460 Constitutive, Inducible, and Repressible Gene Expression 461 Positive and Negative Control of Gene Expression 462 Operons: Coordinately Regulated Units of Gene Expression 464 The Lactose Operon in E. coli: Induction and Catabolite Repression 466 Solve It : Constitutive Mutations in the E. coli lac Operon 468 Induction 468 Catabolite Repression 469           Problem-Solving Skills Testing Your Understanding of the lac Operon 471 Protein–DNA Interactions That Control Transcription of the lac Operon 472 The Tryptophan Operon in E. coli: Repression and Attenuation 474 Repression 474 Attenuation 475 Solve It : Regulation of the Histidine Operon of Salmonella typhimurium 477 Posttranscriptional Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes 479 Translational Control of Gene Expression 479 Posttranslational Regulatory Mechanisms 479 Chapter 18 : Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 484 African Trypanosomes : A Ward robe of Molecular DisguIses 484 Ways of Regulating Eukaryotic Gene Expression: An Overview 485 Dimensions of Eukaryotic Gene Regulation 485 Controlled Transcription of DNA 485 Alternate Splicing of RNA 486 Cytoplasmic Control of Messenger RNA Stability 486 Solve It : Counting mRNAs 487 Induction of Transcriptional Activity by Environmental and Biological Factors 487 Temperature: The Heat-Shock Genes 488 Signal Molecules: Genes That Respond to Hormones 488 Molecular Control of Transcription in Eukaryotes 490 DNA Sequences Involved in the Control of Transcription 490 Proteins Involved in the Control of Transcription: Transcription Factors 491 Problem-Solving Skills Defining the Sequences Required for a Gene’s Expression 492 Posttranscriptional Regulation of Gene Expression by RNA Interference 494 RNAi Pathways 494 Sources of Short Interfering RNAs and MicroRNAs 496 Solve It Using RnAi in Cell Research 497 Gene Expression and Chromatin Organization 497 Euchromatin and Heterochromatin 498 Molecular Organization of Transcriptionally Active DNA 498 Chromatin Remodeling 499 DNA Methylation 500 Imprinting 502 Activation and Inactivation of Whole Chromosomes 503 Inactivation of X Chromosomes in Mammals 504 Hyperactivation of X Chromosomes in Drosophila 505 Hypoactivation of X Chromosomes in Caenorhabditis 506 Chapter 19 : Inheritance of Complex Traits 511 Cardiovascular Disease: A Combination of Genetic and Environmental Factors 511 Complex Traits 512 Quantifying Complex Traits 512 Genetic and Environmental Factors Influence Quantitative Traits 512 Multiple Genes Influence Quantitative Traits 512 Threshold Traits 514 Statistics of Quantitative Genetics 515 Frequency Distributions 515 The Mean and the Modal Class 516 The Variance and the Standard Deviation 516 Statistical Analysis of Quantitative Traits 517 The Multiple Factor Hypothesis 518 Partitioning the Phenotypic Variance 518 Broad-Sense Heritability 519 Solve It Estimating Genetic and Environmental Variance Components 519 Narrow-Sense Heritability 520 Predicting Phenotypes 521 Solve It Using the Narrow-Sense Heritability 522 Artificial Selection 522 Molecular Analysis of Complex Traits 523 Quantitative Trait Loci 523 Genome-Wide Association Studies Of Human Diseases 526 Problem-Solving Skills Detecting Dominance at a QTL 527 Correlations between Relatives 531 Correlating Quantitative Phenotypes between Relatives 531 Interpreting Correlations between Relatives 533 Quantitative Genetics of Human Behavioral Traits 535 Intelligence 535 Personality 536 Chapter 20 : Population Genetics 541 A Remote Colony 541 The Theory of Allele Frequencies 542 Estimating Allele Frequencies 542 Relating Genotype Frequencies to Allele Frequencies: The Hardy–Weinberg Principle 543 Applications of the Hardy–Weinberg Principle 543 Exceptions to the Hardy–Weinberg Principle 545 Solve It : The Effects of Inbreeding on Hardy– Weinberg Frequencies 546 Using Allele Frequencies in Genetic Counseling 547 Natural Selection 548 The Concept of Fitness 548 Natural Selection at the Level of the Gene 549 Solve It : Selection against a Harmful Recessive Allele 550 Random Genetic Drift 552 Random Changes in Allele Frequencies 552 The Effects of Population Size 553 Problem-Solving Skills Applying Genetic Drift to Pitcairn Island 554 Populations in Genetic Equilibrium 554 Balancing Selection 555 Mutation–Selection Balance 556 Mutation–Drift Balance 557 Answers to Odd-Numbered Questions and Problems 563 Glossary 584 Index 607 Chapter 21 (Online) : Transposable Genetic Elements WC-1 Maize: A Staple Crop with a Cultural Heritage WC-1 Transposable Elements: An Overview WC-2 Transposable Elements in Bacteria WC-3 Is Elements WC-3 Composite Transposons WC-5 The Tn3 Element WC-5 Solve It: Accumulating Drug-Resistance Genes WC-5 Cut-and-Paste Transposons in Eukaryotes WC-7 Ac and Ds Elements in Maize WC-7 P Elements and Hybrid Dysgenesis in Drosophila WC-9 Problem-Solving Skills Analyzing Transposon Activity in Maize W C - 10 Retroviruses and Retrotransposons WC-11 Retroviruses WC-12 Retroviruslike Elements WC-14 Retroposons WC-16 Transposable Elements in Humans WC-17 The Genetic and Evolutionary Significance of Transposable Elements WC-20 Transposons as Mutagens WC-20 Genetic Transformation with Transposons WC-20 Solve It Transposon-Mediated Chromosome Rearrangements W C - 22 Transposons and Genome Organization WC-22 Chapter 22 (Online) : The Genetic Control of Animal Development WC-28 Stem-Cell Therapy WC-28 A Genetic Perspective on Development WC-29 Maternal Gene Activity in Development WC-31 Maternal-Effect Genes WC-31 Determination of the Dorsal-Ventral and Anterior-Posterior Axes WC-32 Solve It:  A Maternal-Effect Mutation in the cinnamon Gene W C - 32 Zygotic Gene Activity in Development WC-35 Body Segmentation WC-35 Organ Formation WC-37 Specification of Cell Types WC-39 Solve It Cave Blindness W C - 39 Problem-Solving Skills The Effects of Mutations during Eye Development W C - 41 Genetic Analysis of Development in Vertebrates WC-41 Vertebrate Homologues of Invertebrate Genes WC-41 The Mouse: Random Insertion Mutations and Gene-specific Knockout Mutations WC-42 Studies with Mammalian Stem Cells WC-43 Reproductive Cloning WC-44 Genetic Changes in the Differentiation of Vertebrate Immune Cells WC-45 Chapter 23 (Online) :The Genetic Basis of Cancer WC-51 A Molecular Family Connection WC-51 Cancer: A Genetic Disease WC-52 The Many Forms of Cancer WC-52 Cancer and the Cell Cycle WC-53 Cancer and Programmed Cell Death WC-54 A Genetic Basis for Cancer WC-54 Oncogenes WC-55 Tumor-Inducing Retroviruses and Viral Oncogenes WC-55 Cellular Homologues of Viral Oncogenes: The Proto-Oncogenes WC-56 Solve It : The v-erbB and v-fms Viral Oncogenes WC-56 Mutant Cellular Oncogenes and Cancer WC-57 Chromosome Rearrangements and Cancer WC-59 Tumor Suppressor Genes WC-60 Inherited Cancers and Knudson’s Two-Hit Hypothesis WC-60 Cellular Roles of Tumor Suppressor Proteins WC-63 pRB WC-63 Problem-Solving Skills Estimating Mutation Rates in Retinoblastoma W C - 63 p53 WC-65 Solve It Downstream of p53 WC-65 pAPC WC-67 phMSH2 WC-68 pBRCA1 and pBRCA2 WC-69 Genetic Pathways to Cancer WC-70 Chapter 24 (Online) : Evolutionary Genetics WC-76 D’ou venons nous ? Que sommes nous ? Ou allons nous? WC-76 The Emergence of Evolutionary Theory WC-77 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution WC-77 Evolutionary Genetics WC-78 Genetic Variation in Natural Populations WC-79 Variation in Phenotypes WC-79 Variation in Chromosome Structure WC-80 Variation in Protein Structure WC-81 Variation in Nucleotide Sequences WC-81 Molecular Evolution WC-82 Molecules as “Documents of Evolutionary History” WC-83 Molecular Phylogenies WC-84 Rates of Molecular Evolution WC-84 Problem-Solving Skills Using Mitochondrial DNA to Establish a Phylogeny W C - 85 The Molecular Clock WC-87 Variation in the Evolution of Protein Sequences WC-87 Solve It Calculating Divergence Times W C - 87 Variation in the Evolution of DNA Sequences WC-88 The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution WC-89 Molecular Evolution and Phenotypic Evolution WC-90 Solve It Evolution by Mutation and Genetic Drift WC-90 Speciation WC-92 What Is a Species? WC-92 Modes of Speciation WC-94 Human Evolution WC-96 Humans and the Great Apes WC-96 Human Evolution in the Fossil Record WC-96 DNA Sequence Variation and Human Origins WC-97 Appendices (Online) Appendix A: The Rules of Probability WA-1 Appendix B: Binomial Probabilities WA-3 Appendix C: Evolutionary Rates WA-5