Plant Biomass Derived Materials, 2 Volumes

Preface xix 1 Biomass – An Environmental Concern 1 Deepak S. Khobragade 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Biomass as an Energy Source 4 1.3 The Environmental Concern of Biomass 6 1.4 Air Pollution 7 1.4.1 Gaseous Emissions 7 1.4.2 Dust 7 1.4.3 Biomass Ash (Bottom Ash) 7 1.4.4 Fly Ash 8 1.4.5 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 8 1.5 Water Use and Water Pollution 8 1.6 Impact on Soil 9 1.7 Indoor Pollution 11 1.8 Deforestation and Land Degradation 11 1.9 Health Hazards 11 1.10 Non-respiratory Illness 11 1.10.1 In Children 11 1.10.1.1 Lower Birth Weight 11 1.10.1.2 Nutritional Deficiency 12 1.10.2 Respiratory Illness in Adults 12 1.10.2.1 Interstitial Lung Disease 12 1.10.2.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) 12 1.10.2.3 Tuberculosis 12 1.10.2.4 Lung Cancer 12 1.10.3 Non-respiratory Illness in Adults 13 1.10.3.1 Cardiovascular Disease 13 1.10.3.2 Cataracts 13 1.11 Safe Disposal of Biomass 13 1.12 The Bioeconomy of the Biomass Utilization 15 1.13 Biowaste-Derived Functional Materials 15 1.14 Conclusion 16 References 17 2 Chemistry of Biomass 23 Wagner M. Cavalini, Breno M. Jóia, Diego E. R. Gonzaga, Rogério Marchiosi, Osvaldo Ferrarese-Filho, and dos Santos, Wanderley D. 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Cellulose 25 2.3 Hemicellulose 26 2.3.1 Xylans 27 2.3.2 Mannans 27 2.3.3 Arabinogalactans 28 2.4 Pectin 28 2.4.1 Homogalacturonan 29 2.4.1.1 Rhamnogalacturonan I 29 2.4.1.2 Rhamnogalacturonan II 29 2.5 Lignin 30 2.5.1 Lignin Valorization 31 2.6 Reserve Compounds 31 2.6.1 Starch 31 2.6.2 Sucrose 32 2.6.3 Lipids 33 2.6.3.1 Fatty Acids 33 2.6.3.2 Triacylglycerols 34 2.7 Natural Compounds (Secondary Metabolites) 34 2.7.1 Terpenoids 35 2.7.2 Phenylpropanoids 35 2.7.3 Alkaloids 36 2.8 Conclusion 36 References 37 3 Lignin from Biomass − Sources, Extraction, and Application 43 Irwan Kurnia, Surachai Karnjanakom, and Guoqing Guan 3.1 Sources 43 3.2 Extraction 45 3.2.1 Alkaline Process 47 3.2.1.1 Sulfur Processes 47 3.2.1.2 Sulfur-Free Processes 48 3.2.2 Acidic Process 48 3.2.2.1 Concentrated Acid Process (Klason Process) 49 3.2.2.2 Dilute Acid Process 49 3.2.3 Solvent-Assisted Extraction Processes 49 3.2.3.1 Organosolv Process 49 3.2.3.2 Aldehyde-Assisted Process 49 3.2.3.3 GVL-Assisted Process 50 3.2.3.4 Ionic Liquid Process 50 3.2.3.5 Deep Eutectic Solvents Process 51 3.2.4 Physical-Assisted Extraction Processes 51 3.2.4.1 Milled-Wood Process 51 3.2.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Process 51 3.2.5 Enzymatic Process 52 3.3 Application 53 3.3.1 Lignin-Derived Nanomaterials 53 3.3.1.1 Biomedical Materials 54 3.3.1.2 Energy Storage Materials 55 3.4 Summary and Outlook 57 Acknowledgments 57 References 58 4 Starch from Biomass – Sources, Extraction, and Application 63 Abdelaziz Amir, Trache Djalal, Sahnoun Nassima, and Tarchoune A. Fouzi 4.1 Introduction 63 4.1.1 Starch Source 63 4.1.2 Root and Tuber Starch Sources 63 4.1.2.1 Potato 63 4.1.2.2 Sweet Potato 65 4.1.2.3 Cassava 67 4.1.2.4 Yam 69 4.1.3 Cereal Starch Sources 70 4.1.3.1 Wheat 70 4.1.3.2 Corn 72 4.1.3.3 Rice 73 4.1.3.4 Oats 74 4.1.3.5 Barley 75 4.1.4 Nonconventional Starch Sources 76 4.1.4.1 Legumes 76 4.1.4.2 Fruits 77 4.2 Starch Extraction 80 4.2.1 Milling Process and its Effect on Starch Structure 80 4.2.1.1 Dry Milling 80 4.2.1.2 Wet Milling 81 4.2.1.3 Effect of the Milling Process on Starch Structure 81 4.2.2 Examples of Starch Extraction from Different Sources 82 4.2.2.1 Extraction of Starch from Tubers 82 4.2.2.2 Extraction of Starch from Cereals and Pulses 83 4.2.3 Nonconventionnel Extraction Techniques 85 4.2.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted Milling 85 4.2.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Starch Extraction 85 4.2.3.3 Air-Classification Assisted Milling 86 4.2.3.4 Electrostatic Separation 86 4.2.3.5 Gluten Washing 87 4.3 Starch Applications 87 4.3.1 Medical Applications 87 4.3.1.1 Drug Delivery Systems 87 4.3.1.2 Surgical Sutures 88 4.3.1.3 Bone Fixation and Regeneration 88 4.3.1.4 Tissue Adhesion 89 4.3.2 Water Treatment 89 4.3.3 Agricultural Applications 90 4.3.4 Packaging Applications 93 4.3.5 Food Applications 94 4.4 Conclusions 95 References 96 5 Recent Trends of Cashew Nutshell Liquid: Extraction, Chemistry, and Applications 117 Sixberth Mlowe and James Mgaya 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Global Production of Cashew in the World 118 5.3 Extraction of CNSL 118 5.3.1 Thermal Extraction 118 5.3.2 Mechanical Extraction 119 5.3.3 Solvent Extraction 120 5.4 Isolation and the Chemistry of Major Components of CNSL 120 5.4.1 Isolation of the Components of Natural CNSL 121 5.4.2 Isolation of the Components of Technical CNSL 122 5.5 Recent Developments in the Chemical Transformation and Uses of Cashew Nutshell Liquid 123 5.5.1 Pharmaceutical Drugs from Cardanol 123 5.5.2 Anthraquinone-Based Dyes from Anacardic Acid 125 5.5.3 CNSL-Based UV Absorbers 126 5.5.4 CNSL in Preparation of Bioactive Nanocarriers 127 5.5.5 CNSL as a Green Catalyst 127 5.5.6 CNSL-Derived Bifunctional Chemicals 128 5.5.7 CNSL-Based Flame Retardants 129 5.5.8 Use of Cashew Nutshell Liquid in the Synthesis of Nanomaterials 130 5.5.9 Use of Cashew Nutshell for Decontamination of Polluted Environment 131 5.5.10 Use of CNSL for Preparation of Resins, Adhesives, and Coatings 133 5.6 Conclusions 134 Acknowledgment 134 References 134 6 Plant Biomass Seed and Root Mucilage: Extraction and Properties 141 Mohsin A. Raza, Paul D. Hallett, and Waheed Afzal 6.1 Introduction 141 6.2 Extraction and Preparation Methods 144 6.2.1 Mucilage Extraction and Preparation 144 6.2.2 Other Mucilage Extraction Methods 144 6.2.3 Model Compounds Preparation 145 6.2.4 Density and Viscosity Measurements 145 6.3 Results and Discussion 146 6.3.1 Density 146 6.3.2 Viscosity 149 6.3.3 Model Compounds 152 6.4 Conclusion 156 References 157 7 Plant-Based Colorants: Isolation and Application 159 Vandana Bhandari, Pratikhya Badanayak, and Seiko Jose 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Classification of Natural Colorants 160 7.2.1 Classification Based on the Sources of Colorants 160 7.2.1.1 Plant-Based Natural Colorants 160 7.2.1.2 Colorant Obtained from Animal Sources 162 7.2.1.3 Mineral-Based Natural Colorants 162 7.2.1.4 Microbial and Fungal Origin 163 7.2.2 Classification on the Basis of Chemical Constituents Present 163 7.2.2.1 Indigoid Dyes 163 7.2.2.2 Anthraquinone Dyes 164 7.2.2.3 Naphthoquinone Dyes 164 7.2.2.4 Flavonoid Dyes 165 7.2.2.5 Carotenoid Dyes 165 7.2.2.6 Tannin-Based Dyes 165 7.2.3 Classification on the Basis of Colors Obtained 165 7.2.3.1 Natural Yellow Dyes 165 7.2.3.2 Natural Red Dyes 165 7.2.3.3 Natural Blue Dyes 166 7.2.3.4 Natural Black Dyes 166 7.2.3.5 Natural Brown Dyes 166 7.2.4 Classification on the Basis of Methods of Applications 166 7.3 Extraction Methods of Naturally Occurring Colorants 167 7.3.1 Conventional/Traditional Methods 167 7.3.1.1 Aqueous Extraction 167 7.3.1.2 Nonaqueous Extraction 168 7.3.2 New Innovative/Modern Methods 169 7.3.2.1 Radiation-Based Extraction (Gamma, Plasma, Microwave, Ultraviolet, and Ultrasonic Radiation) 169 7.3.2.2 Gamma Radiation 170 7.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 170 7.3.2.4 Ultrasonic Radiation 170 7.3.2.5 Supercritical Extraction 170 7.3.2.6 Enzymatic Method 171 7.4 Mordanting 171 7.4.1 Metal Salts Mordants 172 7.4.2 Oil Mordants 172 7.4.3 Tannins 172 7.5 Mordanting Methods 173 7.6 Functional Properties of Natural Colorants 173 7.6.1 Antimicrobial Property 173 7.6.2 Deodorant Properties of Natural Dyes 175 7.6.3 UV-Protection Property of Natural Dyes 175 7.6.4 Insect-Repellent Properties of Natural Dyes 176 7.7 Fastness Properties of Natural Dyes 176 7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Dyes 177 7.8.1 Advantages 177 7.8.2 Disadvantages 178 7.9 Conclusion 178 References 179 8 Revival of Sustainable Fungal-Based Natural Pigments 189 Shahid Adeel, Amna Naseer, Bisma, Fazal-ur-Rehman, Noman Habib, and Atya Hassan 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Classification of Natural Dyes Based on Sources 190 8.3 Fungal-Based Dyes and Pigments 190 8.4 Classification of Fungal Pigments 190 8.4.1 Species of the Trichocomaceae Family Producing Pigments 191 8.4.1.1 Aspergillus 191 8.4.1.2 Penicillium 193 8.4.1.3 Talaromyces Species 194 8.4.2 Species of the Monascaceae Family Producing Pigments 196 8.4.2.1 Monascus purpureus 196 8.4.3 Species of the Nectriaceae Family Producing Pigments 198 8.4.3.1 Fusarium oxysporum 198 8.4.3.2 Fusarium graminearum 199 8.4.3.3 Fusarium fujikuroi 201 8.4.4 Species of the Hypocreaceae Family Producing Pigments 202 8.4.4.1 Trichoderma harzianum 202 8.4.4.2 Trichoderma spirale 204 8.4.5 Species of the Pleosporaceae Family Producing Pigments 205 8.4.5.1 Pleosporaceae spp. (Alternaria, Curvularia, and Drechslera) 205 8.5 Conclusion 207 References 207 9 Modern Approach Toward Algal-Based Natural Pigments for Textiles 213 Mahwish Salman, Shahid Adeel, Mehwish Naseer, Muhammad Zulqurnain Haider, and Fozia Anjum 9.1 Introduction 213 9.1.1 Bio-Pigments 216 9.2 Diversity of Bio-Pigments Present in Algae 216 9.2.1 Chlorophyll 217 9.2.2 Carotenoids 218 9.2.3 Phycobilisomes 218 9.2.4 Phycobilins 219 9.2.5 Phycocyanin 219 9.2.6 Phycoerythrin 220 9.3 Extraction Methods of Bio-Pigments 220 9.4 Conventional Extraction Methods 220 9.4.1 Classic Extraction 220 9.4.1.1 Solvent-Based Extraction 220 9.4.1.2 Thermal Treatment 221 9.4.1.3 Freeze-Thaw Method 221 9.4.1.4 Enzymatic Extraction 221 9.4.2 Modern Extraction Methods 222 9.4.2.1 Pressurized Systems 222 9.4.2.2 Wave-Energy-Based Cell Disruption 222 9.4.2.3 Cell Milking 224 9.4.2.4 Electroextraction 224 9.4.2.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 225 9.4.3 Novel Extraction Methodologies 225 9.4.3.1 Laser 226 9.4.3.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 226 9.4.3.3 High Voltage Electrical Discharge (HVED) 226 9.4.3.4 Ohmic Heating (OH) 226 9.5 Algal-Based Natural Dyes 227 9.6 Bio-Pigments in the Textile Industry 229 9.7 Utilization of Algal-Based Natural Dyes in Different Industries 230 9.8 Future Prospective of Algal-Based Bio-Pigments 231 9.9 Conclusion 232 References 233 10 Biorefinery from Plant Biomass: A Case Study on Sugarcane Straw 243 Fahriya P. Sari, Nissa N. Solihat, Nur I. W. Azelee, and Widya Fatriasari 10.1 Introduction 243 10.2 Biorefinery Concept and Current Trend 245 10.3 Biorefinery Concepts for Sugarcane Straw Valorization 250 10.3.1 Cellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 250 10.3.1.1 Bioethanol 250 10.3.1.2 Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) and Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) 253 10.3.1.3 Biomethane 253 10.3.1.4 Biohydrogen 254 10.3.2 Hemicellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 254 10.3.2.1 Xylose and Xylooligosaccharides Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258 10.3.2.2 Xylitol Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258 10.3.2.3 Furfural Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259 10.3.2.4 Alcohols and Biogas Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259 10.3.3 Lignin-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 259 10.3.4 Other Components (Extractives and Ash) Derived Bioproducts 260 10.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 262 10.5 Conclusion 263 Acknowledgment 263 References 263 11 Forest and Agricultural Biomass 271 Mohd H. Mohamad Amini 11.1 Introduction 271 11.2 Forest Sources 272 11.2.1 Virgin and Natural Forest 272 11.2.1.1 Hardwood 273 11.2.1.2 Softwood 273 11.3 Plantation Forest 274 11.3.1 Timber Species 275 11.3.1.1 Acacia mangium 275 11.3.1.2 Rubber Tree 276 11.3.1.3 Pinus radiata 276 11.3.1.4 Tectona grandis 276 11.3.2 Non-timber Species 276 11.3.2.1 Bamboo 277 11.3.2.2 Jute and Kenaf 278 11.4 Agricultural Biomass 279 11.4.1 Corn/Maize 279 11.4.2 Sugarcane 280 11.4.3 Oil Palm 280 11.4.4 Wheat 281 11.4.5 Cassava 282 11.4.6 Coconut 283 11.4.7 Rice 284 11.4.8 Others 284 11.5 Biomass Extraction and Application 285 11.6 Conclusion and Prospect 286 References 286 12 Manufacture of Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 291 Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa 12.1 Introduction 291 12.2 Industrially Relevant Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 295 12.2.1 Saccharides 295 12.2.2 Ethanol 298 12.2.3 Lactic Acid 300 12.2.4 Itaconic Acid 302 12.2.5 Succinic Acid 302 12.2.6 Sorbitol and Xylitol 303 12.2.7 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural 303 12.2.8 Hydroxy Acids for Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 304 12.2.9 Further Chemicals with Practical Relevance 306 12.3 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Biotechnological Pathway 312 12.4 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Catalytic Pathway 313 12.5 Conclusion 314 Abbreviations 314 Acknowledgments 315 References 316 13 Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329 Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa 13.1 Introduction 329 13.2 Main Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329 13.2.1 Ring-Opening Polymerization 330 13.2.2 Condensation Polymerization 333 13.2.3 Free Radical Polymerization 336 13.3 Exploitation of Olive Tree and Olive Oil Residues as Feedstock for Biopolymers Production 339 13.3.1 Second Generation Bioethanol and Platform Chemicals for the Polymer Industries from Lignocellulosic Fractions 341 13.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 342 13.3.3 Exploitation of Residual Oils from Olive Mills and Olive Pomace to Get Polymerizable Monomers 343 13.3.4 Polyphenols in Olive Tree Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 343 13.4 Exploitation of Winemaking Residues for Biopolymers Production 345 13.4.1 Bioethanol 345 13.4.2 Lactic Acid, Xylitol and Furfural 346 13.4.3 Succinic Acid 346 13.4.4 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) 347 13.4.5 Bio-oils from Winemaking Residues for Generation of Polymerizable Monomers 347 13.4.6 Polyphenols in Winery Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 348 13.5 Conclusion 348 Abbreviations 349 Acknowledgments 350 References 350 14 Manufacture of Polymer Composites from Plant Fibers 363 Md. Reazuddin Repon, Tarekul Islam, Tarikul Islam, and Md. Abdul Alim 14.1 Introduction 363 14.2 Biocomposites 365 14.2.1 Plant-based Natural Fibers 366 14.2.2 Polymer Matrix 367 14.3 Fiber Treatment and Modification 371 14.4 Fabrication of Composites 373 14.5 Mechanical Properties of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 376 14.6 Biodegradability of Micro and Nano-Polymer Compounds 377 14.7 Potential Application Areas of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 378 14.8 Conclusion 381 References 382 15 Lignin-Based Composites and Nanocomposites 389 Rubén Teijido, Julia Sanchez-Bodón, Antonio Veloso-Fernández, Leyre Pérez-Álvarez, Ana C. Lopes, Isabel Moreno-Benítez, José L. Vilas-Vilela, and Leire Ruiz-Rubio 15.1 Lignin Introduction 389 15.2 Synthesis of Lignin-Based Nanoparticles 393 15.2.1 Acid-Catalyzed Precipitation 393 15.2.2 Flash Precipitation and Nanoprecipitation 394 15.2.3 Solvent Exchange 395 15.2.4 Water-in-Oil (W/O) Microemulsion Methods 395 15.2.5 Homogenization and Ultrasonication 395 15.3 Lignin Properties and Applications 396 15.3.1 Lignin Nanoparticles–Matrix Interactions 397 15.3.2 High-Temperature Requiring Applications 398 15.3.3 Biomedical Applications 400 15.3.4 Environmental Applications 402 15.3.5 Energy Storage, Catalysis, and Electrochemistry Applications 405 15.3.5.1 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 405 15.3.5.2 Energy Storage Applications: Electrodes and Supercapacitors 406 15.3.6 Civil Engineering Applications (Construction, Protective Coatings, and Mechanical Reinforcing Applications) 406 15.4 Conclusion and Future Work 407 Acknowledgments 412 References 412 16 Bio Plastics from Biomass 421 Alcides L. Leao, Ivana Cesarino, Milena C. de Souza, Ivan Moroz, and Mohammad Jawaid 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Types and Applications of Bioplastics 422 16.3 Global Market 427 16.4 Bioplastics Processing and Applications 429 16.4.1 Polyamides 430 16.4.2 Pp 431 16.4.3 PBAT and PBS 432 16.4.4 Cellulose 432 16.5 Conclusion 434 Acknowledgments 434 References 434 17 Plant-based Materials for Energy Application 441 Patrick U. Okoye, Diego R. Lobato-Peralta, José L. Alemán-Ramirez, Estefania Duque-Brito, Dulce M. Arias, Jude A. Okolie, and Pathiyamattom J. Sebastian 17.1 Introduction 441 17.2 Plant-based Lignocellulosic Biomass 442 17.2.1 Composition and Extraction of Lignocellulosic Components 442 17.2.2 Conversion of Plant-based Biomass Into Activated Carbon 443 17.2.3 Types of Activation 444 17.3 Reactor Configuration 445 17.4 Plant-based Carbon Materials for Energy Storage Purposes 447 17.4.1 Supercapacitors 448 17.4.2 Hydrogen Storage 449 17.4.3 Microbial Fuel Cells 450 17.4.4 Plant-based Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 451 17.4.4.1 Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452 17.4.4.2 Development and Activation of Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452 17.5 Challenges 456 17.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 456 References 457 18 Plant Biomass for Water Purification Applications 465 Humayra A. Himu, Tanvir M. Dip, Ayesha S. Emu, A T M F. Ahmed, and Md. Syduzzaman 18.1 Introduction 465 18.2 Sources of Plant Biomass Used for Water Purification 469 18.2.1 Agricultural Peel-Based Biomass 471 18.2.2 Leaf-Based Biomass 471 18.2.3 Stems and Roots-Based Biomass 472 18.2.4 Powder and Dust-Based Biomass 472 18.2.5 Floating Plants, Beds, and Wetlands 473 18.3 Modification of Plant Biomass 473 18.3.1 Physical Modification 473 18.3.2 Chemical Modification 474 18.3.2.1 Chemically Modified Plant Biomass for Water Purification 474 18.3.2.2 Three-Dimensional Porous Cake-Like Biosorbent 474 18.3.3 Thermochemical Modification 477 18.3.3.1 Plant Biomass-Derived Biochar 477 18.3.3.2 Plant Biomass-Derived AC 477 18.4 Plant Biomass-Based Water Purification Processes/Techniques 479 18.4.1 Adsorbent-Based Process 480 18.4.2 Solar Steam Generation (SSG) Device for Desalination and Filtration 481 18.4.3 Biosorption 482 18.4.4 Membrane Filtration 485 18.5 Purification Mechanism 486 18.5.1 For Dye Removal 486 18.5.2 For Heavy Metal Removal 487 18.5.3 For Other Compounds Removal 489 18.6 Sector-Based Water Purification 489 18.6.1 Drinking Water 491 18.6.2 Industrial Wastewater 493 18.6.3 Domestic Wastewater 494 18.6.4 Agricultural Wastewater 494 18.7 Regeneration and Reuse 495 18.8 Limitations, Challenges, and Future Outlooks 497 18.9 Conclusion 498 References 498 19 Sustainable Biocomposite-Based Biomass for Aerospace Applications 517 Mazlan Norkhairunnisa, Tay Chai Hua, Farid Bajuri, Izzat N. Yaacob, and Kamarul A. Ahmad 19.1 Introduction 517 19.2 Bioresin 518 19.2.1 Biodegradability and Properties of Sustainable Bioresin 519 19.3 Biocomposite 523 19.3.1 Design of Biocomposite for Aerospace Application Reinforcement 524 19.3.1.1 Plant-Based Fiber 524 19.3.1.2 Animal-Based Fiber 524 19.3.1.3 Biofillers 525 19.3.2 Material Selection and Its Properties in Aerospace Applications 525 19.3.3 Biocomposite Performances and Applications in Aerospace Structure Design 526 19.3.3.1 Advantageous and Disadvantageous of Composite in Aerospace Applications 526 19.3.3.2 Application of Biocomposite in Aircraft Structure 527 19.3.4 Sustainability and Environmental Effects 528 19.4 Summary 529 References 530 20 Biomass-based Food Packaging 537 Asif Hafeez, Madeha Jabbar, Yasir Nawab, and Khubab Shaker 20.1 Food Packaging Materials 537 20.2 Food Packaging Material Perquisites 539 20.2.1 Food Packaging Properties 540 20.2.1.1 Thermal Properties 540 20.2.1.2 Mechanical Properties 540 20.2.1.3 Chemical Reactivity 540 20.2.1.4 Optical Properties 541 20.2.1.5 Gas Barrier Properties 541 20.2.1.6 Moisture Barrier Properties 541 20.2.1.7 Durability 541 20.2.2 Packaged Product Characteristics 542 20.2.3 Individual Package Properties 542 20.2.4 Storage and Distribution Conditions 543 20.3 Environmental Impact of Conventional Food Packaging 543 20.4 Sources of Biomass 545 20.5 Processing of Biomass to Food Packaging 545 20.5.1 Thermoplasticization of Biomass 546 20.5.2 Film Blowing 547 20.5.3 Foaming Technology 547 20.6 Food Packaging from Agricultural Biomass 547 20.6.1 Rice Straw 548 20.6.2 Wheat Straw 549 20.6.3 Sugarcane Bagasse 549 20.7 Conclusion 550 References 550 21 Recycling Plant Biomass and Life Cycle Assessment in Circular Economy Systems 557 Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu Adesoji Adediran 21.1 Introduction 557 21.2 Process of Recycling Plant Biomass 558 21.2.1 Gasification of Plant Biomass 559 21.2.2 Pyrolysis of Plant Biomass 560 21.2.3 Combustion of Plant Biomass 561 21.2.4 Biological Conversion of Plant Biomass 562 21.3 Processes of Life Cycle Assessment 562 21.4 Literature Review on Life Cycle Assessment for Plant Biomass Recycling 564 21.5 Conclusion 568 References 568 22 The Handling, Storage, and Preservation of Plant Biomass 575 Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu A. Adediran 22.1 Introduction 575 22.2 Characteristics of Plant Biomass 576 22.3 Handling of Plant Biomass 578 22.4 Storage and Preservation of Plant Biomass 580 22.4.1 Dry Storage Systems 581 22.4.2 Wet Storage Systems 583 22.4.3 Preservation of Plant Biomass 584 22.5 Conclusion 586 References 586 Index 591