Photovoltaic Solar Energy

List of Contributors xxvii Foreword xxxii Acknowledgments xxxiv About the Companion Website xxxv Part One INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1 1.1 Introduction 3 Angèle Reinders, Wilfried van Sark, and Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 11 Constants 11 List of Acronyms 11 References 11 Part Two BASIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 2.1 Semiconductor Materials and their Properties 15 Angèle Reinders List of Symbols 19 List of Acronyms 19 References 20 2.2 Doping, Diffusion, and Defects in Solar Cells 21 Pierre J. Verlinden List of Symbols 31 List of Acronyms 31 References 31 2.3 Absorption and Generation 32 Seth Hubbard References 38 2.4 Recombination 39 Seth Hubbard References 46 2.5 Carrier Transport 47 Seth Hubbard References 53 2.6 PN Junctions and the Diode Equation 54 Seth Hubbard Acknowledgments 63 List of Symbols 63 List of Acronyms 65 References 66 Part Three CRYSTALLINE SILICON TECHNOLOGIES 67 3.1 Silicon Materials: Electrical and Optical Properties 69 Andreas Fell List of Symbols 77 List of Acronyms 77 References 78 3.2 Silicon Solar Cell Device Structures 80 Andrew Blakers and Ngwe Zin References 90 3.3 Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells 92 Pierre Verlinden 3.4 Heterojunction Silicon Solar Cells 104 Wilfried van Sark List of Symbols 110 List of Acronyms 111 References 112 3.5 Surface Passivation and Emitter Recombination Parameters 114 Bram Hoex List of Symbols 121 List of Acronyms 122 References 122 3.6 Passivated Contacts 125 Martin Hermle List of Symbols 133 List of Acronyms 133 References 134 3.7 Light Management in Silicon Solar Cells 136 Zachary Holman and Mathieu Boccard List of Symbols 147 List of Acronyms 148 References 149 3.8 Numerical Simulation of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 150 Pietro Altermatt References 158 3.9 Advanced Concepts 160 Martin Green List of Acronyms 166 References 166 Part Four CHALCOGENIDE THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS 167 4.1 Basics of Chalcogenide Thin Film Solar Cells 169 Susanne Siebentritt List of Symbols 176 List of Acronyms 176 References 176 4.2 Cu(In,Ga)Se2 and CdTe Absorber Materials and their Properties 179 Sylvain Marsillac List of Symbols 187 List of Acronyms 187 References 188 4.3 Contacts, Buffers, Substrates, and Interfaces 190 Negar Naghavi List of Acronyms 200 References 200 4.4 CIGS Module Design and Manufacturing 204 William Shafarman List of Acronyms 211 References 211 Part Five THIN FILM SILICON‐BASED PV TECHNOLOGIES 213 5.1 Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 215 Etienne Moulin, Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 223 References 224 5.2 Thin Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells on Glass 226 Onno Gabriel, Daniel Amkreutz, Jan Haschke, Bernd Rech, and Rutger Schlatmann Acknowledgments 235 List of Symbols and Acronyms 235 References 236 5.3 Light Management in Crystalline and Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells 238 Franz Haug List of Symbols 244 List of Acronyms 245 References 245 5.4 New Future Concepts 248 Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, Etienne Moulin, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 253 References 253 Part Six ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 255 6.1 Solid‐State Organic Photovoltaics 257 Bernard Kippelen Acknowledgments 265 Acronyms 265 References 265 6.2 Hybrid and Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells 267 Woojun Yoon References 275 6.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 277 Samuel D. Stranks and Henry J. Snaith References 289 6.4 Organic PV Module Design and Manufacturing 292 Veronique S. Gevaerts List of Acronyms 301 References 302 Part Seven CHARACTERIZATION AND MEASUREMENTS METHODS 303 7.1 Methods and Instruments for the Characterization of Solar Cells 305 Halden Field List of Symbols 320 List of Acronyms 320 References 320 7.2 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Characterization in Silicon Photovoltaics 322 Thorsten Trupke Acknowledgments 334 List of Symbols 334 List of Acronyms 335 References 335 7.3 Measurement of Carrier Lifetime, Surface Recombination Velocity , and Emitter Recombination Parameters 339 Henner Kampwerth List of Symbols 347 List of Acronyms 348 References 348 7.4 In‐situ Measurements, Process Control, and Defect Monitoring 350 Angus Rockett List of Acronyms 360 References 360 7.5 PV Module Performance Testing and Standards 362 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Symbols 368 List of Acronyms 368 References 369 Part Eight III‐Vs AND PV CONCENTRATOR TECHNOLOGIES 371 8.1 III‐V Solar Cells – Materials, Multi‐Junction Cells – Cell Design and Performance 373 Frank Dimroth Acknowledgments 380 List of Acronyms 380 References 380 8.2 New and Future III‐V Cells and Concepts 383 Simon Fafard List of Acronyms and Symbols 393 References 393 8.3 High Concentration PV Systems 396 Karin Hinzer, Christopher E. Valdivia, and John P.D. Cook List of Acronyms 408 References 409 8.4 Operation of CPV Power Plants: Energy Prediction 411 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Acronyms 418 References 418 8.5 The Luminescent Solar Concentrator (LSC) 420 Michael Debije List of Symbols 428 List of Acronyms 428 References 429 Part Nine SPACE TECHNOLOGIES 431 9.1 Materials, Cell Structures, and Radiation Effects 433 Rob Walters List of Symbols and Units 442 References 442 9.2 Space PV Systems and Flight Demonstrations 444 Phillip Jenkins Acknowledgments 453 List of Acronyms 453 References 454 9.3 A Vision on Future Developments in Space Photovoltaics 455 David Wilt List of Symbols 461 List of Acronyms 461 References 462 Part Ten PV MODULES AND MANUFACTURING 463 10.1 Manufacturing of Various PV Technologies 465 Alison Lennon and Rhett Evans Acknowledgements 474 List of Abbreviations 474 References 474 10.2 Encapsulant Materials for PV Modules 478 Michael Kempe Acknowledgments 488 List of Symbols 488 List of Acronyms 488 References 489 10.3 Reliability and Durability of PV Modules 491 Sarah Kurtz Acknowledgments 500 References 501 10.4 Advanced Module Concepts 502 Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 508 List of Acronyms 508 References 509 Part Eleven PV SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS 511 11.1 Grid-Connected PV Systems 513 Greg J. Ball Acknowledgments 527 List of Acronyms 528 References 529 11.2 Inverters, Power Optimizers, and Microinverters 530 Chris Deline List of Symbols 537 List of Acronyms 537 References 538 11.3 Stand-Alone and Hybrid PV Systems 539 Matthias Vetter and Georg Bopp References 552 11.4 PV System Monitoring and Characterization 553 Wilfried van Sark, Atse Louwen, Odysseas Tsafarakis, and Panos Moraitis Acknowledgments 561 List of Symbols 561 List of Acronyms 562 References 562 11.5 Energy Prediction and System Modeling 564 Joshua S. Stein List of Symbols and Acronyms 575 References 577 11.6 Building Integrated Photovoltaics 579 Michiel Ritzen, Zeger Vroon, and Chris Geurts List of Acronyms 588 References 588 11.7 Product Integrated Photovoltaics 590 Angèle Reinders and Georgia Apostolou List of Acronym 598 References 598 Part Twelve PV DEPLOYMENT IN DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 601 12.1 PV Systems in Smart Energy Homes: PowerMatching City 603 Albert van den Noort List of Acronyms 610 References 611 12.2 New Future Solutions: Best Practices from European PV Smart Grid Projects 612 Gianluca Fulli and Flavia Gangale List of Acronyms 619 References 619 Part Thirteen SUPPORTING METHODS AND TOOLS 621 13.1 The Economics of PV Systems 623 Matthew Campbell List of Acronyms 633 References 633 13.2 People’s Involvement in Residential PV and their Experiences 634 Barbara van Mierlo References 644 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics 646 Vasilis Fthenakis References 656 13.4 List of International Standards Related to PV 658 Pierre Verlinden and Wilfried van Sark Acknowledgements 671 References 671 Index 672