Nanodiamonds in Analytical and Biological Sciences

Contributors xii Editor's Preface: Nanodiamonds -- A Rising Star in Nanotechnology xv 1 Nanodiamonds 1 Tan-Thanh Huynh, Marvin Chen, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, Xuan Mai Lam, Kartika Wardhani, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 1.1 Structure and Classification of Nanodiamonds 1 1.2 Preparation of Nanodiamonds 4 1.2.1 High-Pressure, High-Temperature 5 1.2.2 Detonation Technique 6 1.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 7 1.2.4 Alternative Methods of Producing Nanodiamonds 8 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Nanodiamonds 9 1.4 Colloidal Properties of Nanodiamonds 12 2 Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 19 Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao, Hsuan-Yi Lin, Ming-Wei Jen, Tan-Thanh Huynh, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, and Yan-Kai Tzeng 2.1 Introduction to Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 19 2.2 Optical Properties of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 21 2.2.1 Vacancy-Related Color Centers 22 2.2.2 Negative Nitrogen-Vacancy Center 23 2.2.3 Silicon-Vacancy Center 25 2.3 Introduction to Förster Resonance Energy Transfer 26 2.3.1 Theory 27 2.3.2 FRET Efficiency 28 3 Fabrication of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 35 Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao, Jo-Yu Wang, Syun-Ying Wang, Stefanny Angela, and Yan-Kai Tzeng 3.1 Introduction to FND Fabrication 35 3.2 Theoretical Simulations 36 3.3 Production and Characterization of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 39 3.4 Latest Developments in High-Pressure, High-Temperature Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 41 3.5 Production of Ultrasmall Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 42 3.6 Synthesis of Highly Dispersible Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 45 3.7 Brightly Synthesized Fluorescent Nanodiamonds Using Solar Energy 46 4 Surface Modification of Nanodiamonds 52 Stefanny Angela, Tzu-Chun You, Dinh Minh Pham, Trong-Nghia Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 4.1 Surface Modification of Nanodiamonds 52 4.2 Surface Functionalization of Nanodiamonds 53 4.3 Encapsulation of Nanodiamonds 55 4.4 Bioconjugation of Nanodiamonds 58 4.5 Application of Surface-Modified Nanodiamonds 60 4.5.1 Biotechnological Applications 60 4.5.2 Biomedical Applications 63 5 Toxicity Assessments of Nanodiamonds 73 Duc-Thang Vo, Tzu-Syuan You, Yu-Teng Lin, Stefanny Angela, Trong-Nghia Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 5.1 Cellular Uptake of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 73 5.2 In vitro Assessments 75 5.3 In vivo Assessments 80 5.4 Nanodiamonds' Phytotoxic Effect 87 5.5 Role of Oxidative Stress in Nanodiamonds' Toxicity 88 6 In vitro Bioimaging of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 95 Trong-Nghia Le, Yen-Tse Chiang, Yuen Yung Hui, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, Yan-Kai Tzeng, Neha Sharma, Wei-Hung Chiang, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 6.1 Bioimaging Applications 95 6.2 Epifluorescence and Confocal Fluorescence Imaging 96 6.3 Single-Particle Tracking 98 6.4 Two-Photon Fluorescence Imaging 102 6.5 Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging 103 6.5.1 Introduction to Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy 103 6.5.2 Principles of FLIM 104 6.5.3 Time-Correlated Single-Photon Counting 105 6.5.4 FND for FLIM 105 6.6 Super-Resolution Fluorescence Imaging 108 6.6.1 Introduction to STED Microscopy 108 6.6.2 Principle of STED 109 6.6.3 FND-Enabled STED 111 6.6.4 Combining STED with other Techniques for Bioimaging 113 6.7 Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance Imaging 115 6.8 Cathodoluminescence Imaging 117 6.9 Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy 120 7 In Vivo Bioimaging of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 128 Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao, Yun-Yu Chen, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, Yuen Yung Hui, Stefanny Angela, and Trong-Nghia Le 7.1 Wide-Field Fluorescence Imaging 128 7.2 Time-Gated Fluorescence Imaging 129 7.3 Photoacoustic Imaging 131 7.4 Tissue Imaging by Microwave Modulation 133 7.5 Magnetically Modulated Fluorescence Imaging 135 7.6 Tissue Imaging Combining Microwaves and Quadruple Coils 137 8 Quantum Sensing of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 141 Yuen Yung Hui, Miranda Liu, Stefanny Angela, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 8.1 Quantum Coherence 141 8.2 NV -- Centers for Quantum Sensing 143 8.3 Emerging Sensing Technologies Using FND 146 8.3.1 Magnetic Field Sensor 146 8.3.2 Orientation Tracker for NV Axis 150 8.3.3 Nanoscopic Spin Probe 151 9 Nanoscale Thermometry with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 156 Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, Richard Hsin, Duc-Thang Vo, Yan-Kai Tzeng, Trong-Nghia Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 9.1 NV Thermometry in Biosystems 156 9.2 Ultrahigh Precision Temperature Measurement 157 9.3 Time-Resolved Nanothermometry 158 9.4 All-Optical Luminescence Nanothermometry 159 9.5 Scanning Thermal Imaging 161 9.6 Intracellular Temperature Sensing 161 10 Nanodiamond-Enabled Drug Delivery 171 Stefanny Angela, Raymond Hsin, Steven Che-Wei Lu, Trong-Nghia Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 10.1 Introduction 172 10.2 Drug Delivery Through Nanodiamonds 173 10.2.1 Delivery of Small Molecules 173 10.2.2 Delivery of Peptides and Proteins 179 10.2.3 Gene Delivery 184 10.3 Fluorescent Nanodiamond-Based Theranostics Platform 189 11 Nanodiamond for Mass-Spectrometry-Based Analysis of Peptides, Proteins, and Proteomes 198 Dinh Minh Pham, Ryu Endo, Chris Chen-Hua Chang, Thi-Hong-Hanh Le, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 11.1 Principles of Analyzing Macro Biomolecules with Mass Spectrometry 199 11.2 The Post-Era of Genomics 199 11.3 Bioinformatics for the Coming of Big-Data Biology 200 11.4 Nanodiamonds for the Mass-Spectrometry-Based Analysis of Peptides, Proteins, and Proteomics 201 11.5 Origin of Interactions Between Nanodiamonds and Proteins or Peptides 201 11.5.1 Surface Properties of Carboxylated/Oxidized Nanodiamonds 201 11.5.2 Interactions of Proteins and Peptides with Carboxylated/Oxidized Nanodiamonds 203 11.5.3 Other Surface-Functionalized Nanodiamonds 206 11.6 SPEED Platform for MS-Based Study of Cellular Cytoplasmic Proteins and Human Fluids 207 11.7 SPEED Platform for MS-Based Study of Membrane Proteins 211 11.8 Surface-Functionalized Nanodiamonds for MS-Based Study of Protein Posttranslational Modifications 215 11.8.1 Nanodiamonds for the Selective Enrichment and MS-based Analysis of Phosphopeptides 215 11.9 Nanodiamonds for Enrichment and MS-Based Analysis of Glycopeptides 216 12 Emerging Roles of Artificial Intelligence in Nanodiamond Sensing 223 Shahzad Ahmad Qureshi, Haroon Aman, Yu--Chen Lin, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 12.1 Machine Learning Algorithms for Nanodiamond Sensing 225 12.1.1 Support Vector Machine 225 12.1.2 k-Nearest Neighbors 225 12.1.3 Random Forest 226 12.1.4 Artificial Neural Network 226 12.1.5 Convolutional Neural Networks 226 12.1.6 Principal Component Analysis 230 12.2 Machine Learning Revolutionizes Biosensing and Disease Diagnosis 230 12.3 Improving Speed and Accuracy with Magnetic Field 232 12.4 Fluorescent-Nanodiamond-Based Immunomagnetic Microscopy of Tumors 233 12.5 Scaling the Nanomedicine in Clinical Research 233 12.6 Convolutional Neural Network Enhances Fluorescence Imaging 234 12.7 Challenges and Conclusion 235 13 Perspective and Outlook on Nanodiamond Research 239 Trong-Nghia Le, Shu-Wei Chang, Joshua Ko, Yu-Jou Lin, Wei-Hung Chiang, and Wesley Wei-Wen Hsiao 13.1 Strengths of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 239 13.2 Nanodiamond's Surface Chemistry 241 13.3 Nanodiamond in Bioimaging 242 13.4 Nanodiamond in Quantum Sensing 242 13.5 Nanodiamond as Therapeutic Carrier 243 13.6 Nanodiamond for Biomedical Analysis 243 13.7 Challenges of Fluorescent Nanodiamond Research 244 References 245 Index 247