Neurobionics

1. The Historical Foundation of Bionics Nick Donaldson and Giles.S. Brindley 1.1 Bionics Past & Future 1.2 History in 1973 1.2.1 Biomaterials 1.2.2 Nerve Stimulation & Recording 1.2.3 Transistors 1.2.4 Conclusion 1.3 Anaesthesia 1.4 Aseptic Surgery 1.5 Clinical Observation & Experiments 1.6 Hermetic Packages 1.6.1 Vacuum Methods 1.6.2 Welding 1.6.3 Glass 1.6.4 Glass Ceramics & Solder Glasses 1.6.5 Ceramics 1.6.6 Microcircuit Technologies 1.6.7 Leak Testing 1.7 Encapsulation (Electrical Insulation) 1.7.1 Insulation 1.7.2 Under-water insulation 1.7.3 Silicones 1.7.4 Primers 1.8 Early Implanted Devices 1.9 Afterword References 2. Development of Stable Long-Term Electrode Tissue Interfaces for Recording and Stimulation Jens Schouenborg 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Tissue responses in the brain to an implanted foreign body 2.2.1 Acute tissue responses 2.2.2 Chronic tissue responses 2.2.3 On the importance of physiological conditions 2.3 Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI) - state of the art 2.4 Biocompatibility of BCI  – on the importance of mechanical compliance 2.5 Novel electrode constructs and implantation procedures 2.5.1 Methods to implant ultraflexible electrodes 2.5.2 Surface configurations 2.5.3 Matrix embedded electrodes 2.5.4 Electrode arrays encorporating drugs 2.6 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 3. Electrochemical Principles of Safe Charge Injection Stuart F. Cogan, David J. Garrett and Rylie A. Green 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Charge Injection Requirements 3.2.1 Stimulation Levels for Functional Responses 3.2.2 Tissue damage thresholds 3.2.3 Charge Injection Processes 3.2.4 Capacitive Charge Injection 3.2.5 Faradaic Charge Injection 3.2.6 Stimulation Waveforms 3.2.7 Voltage Transient Analysis 3.3 Electrode Materials 3.3.1 Non-noble Metal Electrodes 3.3.2 Noble metals 3.3.3 High Surface Area Capacitor Electrodes 3.3.4 Three-dimensional Noble Metal Oxide Films 3.4 Factors Influencing Electrode Reversibility 3.4.1 In vivo versus saline charge injection limits 3.4.2 Degradation Mechanisms and Irreversible Reactions 3.5 Emerging Electrode Materials 3.5.1 Intrinsically conductive polymers 3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes and Conductive Diamond 3.6 Conclusion References 4. Principles of Recording from an Electrical Stimulation of Neural Tissue James B. Fallon and Paul M. Carter 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Anatomy and physiology of neural tissue 4.2.1 Active Neurons 4.3 Physiological principles of recording from neural tissue 4.3.1 Theory of recording 4.3.2 Recording electrodes 4.3.3 Amplification 4.3.4 Imaging 4.4 Principles of Stimulation of Neural Tissue 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2 Principles of Neural Stimulator Design 4.4.3 Modelling Nerve Stimulation 4.4.4 The Activating Function 4.4.5 Properties of Nerves Under Electrical Stimulation 4.5 Safety of Electrical Stimulation 4.5.1 Safe Stimulation Limits 4.5.2 Metabolic Stress 4.5.3 Electrochemical Stress 4.6 Conclusion References 5. Wireless Neurotechnology for Neural Prostheses Arto Nurmikko, David Borton and Ming Yin 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rationale and overview of Technical Challenges Associated with Wireless Neuroelectronic Interfaces 5.3 Wireless Brain Interfaces Require Specialized Microelectronics 5.3.1 Lessons learned from Cabled Neural Interfaces 5.3.2 Special Demands for Compact Wireless Neural Interfaces 5.4 Illustrative Microsystems for High Data Rate Wireless Brain Interfaces in Primates 5.5 Power Supply and Management for Wireless Neural Interfaces 5.6 Packaging and Challenges in Hermetic Sealing 5.7 Deployment of High Data Rate Wireless Recording in Freely Moving Large Animals 5.8 Summary and Prospects for High Data Rate Brain Interfaces for Neural Prostheses Acknowledgements References 6. Preclinical Testing of Neural Prostheses Douglas McCreery 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Biocompatibility testing of neural implants 6.3 Testing for mechanical and electrical integrity 6.4 In vitro accelerated testing and accelerated aging of neural implants   6.5 In vivo testing of neural prostheses 6.6 Conclusion References 7. Auditory and Visual Neural Prostheses Robert K. Shepherd, Peter M. Seligman, Mohit N. Shivdasani 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Auditory prostheses 7.2.1 The Auditory system 7.2.2 Hearing loss 7.2.3 Cochlear implants 7.2.4 Central auditory prostheses 7.2.5 Combined electric and acoustic stimulation 7.2.6 Bilateral cochlear implants 7.2.7 Future directions 7.3 Visual prostheses 7.3.1 The Visual system 7.3.2 Vision loss 7.3.3 Retinal prostheses 7.3.4 Central visual prostheses 7.3.5 Perception through a vision prosthesis 7.3.6 Future directions 7.4 Sensory prostheses and brain plasticity 7.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 8. Neurobionics: Treatments for Disorders of the Central Nervous System Hugh McDermott 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Psychiatric conditions 8.2.1 Obsessive-compulsive disorder 8.2.2 Major depression 8.3 Movement disorders 8.3.1 Essential Tremor 8.3.2 Parkinson’s disease 8.3.3 Dystonia 8.3.4 Tourette syndrome 8.4 Epilepsy 8.5 Pain 8.6 Future directions Acknowledgements References 9. Brain Computer Interfaces David M. Brandman and Leigh R. Hochberg 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Motor Physiology 9.2.1 Neurons are the fundamental unit of the Brain 9.2.2 Movement occurs through coordinated activity between multiple regions of the nervous system 9.2.3 Motor Cortex: a first source for iBCI signals 9.2.4 The Parietal Cortex is implicated in spatial coordination 9.2.5 The premotor and supplementary motor cortices are engaged in movement goals 9.2.6 Functional brain organization is constantly changing 9.2.7 Section Summary 9.3 The Clinical Population for Brain Machine Interfaces 9.3.1 Paralysis may result from damage to the motor system 9.3.2 Individuals with spinal cord injuries develop motor impairments that may impact hand function 9.3.3 Individuals with LIS develop motor impairment that impacts communication 9.4 BCI Modalities 9.4.1 BCI Modalities 9.4.2 Electrodes placed in the cortex record action potentials from neurons 9.4.3 Raw voltage signals are processed into spikes 9.5 BCI Decoding and applications 9.5.1 BCI decoders convert neural information into control of devices 9.5.2 BCI decoders allow for the control of prosthetic devices 9.6 Future directions 9.6.1 Scientific and engineering directions for developing BMI technology 9.6.2 Clinical directions for development of BCI technology 9.7 Conclusion References 10. Taking a Device to Market: Regulatory and Commercial Issues John L. Parker 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Basic Research 10.3 Preclinical Development 10.4 Clinical trials and approval to sell 10.5 Building a Business not a product 10.6 Conclusions References 11. Ethical Considerations in the Development of Neural Prostheses Frank J. Lane, Kristian P. Nitsch, and Marcia Scherer 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Individuals with Disabilities & Technology Development 11.3 Ethical Principles of Biomedical Research 11.4 Conclusions References Appendix: Companies Developing and/or Marketing Bionic Devices