Materials and Processes for Nuclear Energy Today and in the Future

Preface xi Fanny BALBAUD-CÉLÉRIER and Céline CABET Chapter 1 Materials and Processes for Light Water Reactors 1 Jean-Paul MASSOUD and Eric MOLINIÉ 1.1 Acronyms 1 1.2 Introduction with general description of the systems 3 1.2.1 Pressurized water reactor 3 1.2.2 Bwr 6 1.3 Requirements for materials 9 1.3.1 Brittle fracture 9 1.3.2 Corrosion 10 1.4 Material choices and basic properties 12 1.4.1 Carbon and LASs 14 1.4.2 Austenitic stainless steels 15 1.4.3 Nickel base alloys 16 1.4.4 Other materials 16 1.5 Fabrication and joining 19 1.5.1 Forging of Ferritic components: from ingot to component 20 1.5.2 Casting … to forging 22 1.5.3 Forging of PWR SG tube bundle 22 1.5.4 Welding and cladding 23 1.5.5 Heat treatment 23 1.5.6 Manufacturing defects (links with fabrication) 24 1.5.7 Non-destructive testing (links with expected defects) 25 1.6 Main material limitations 27 1.6.1 BWRs 27 1.6.2 PWRs 28 1.6.3 Irradiation embrittlement 28 1.6.4 Thermal aging 34 1.6.5 Stress corrosion cracking 37 1.6.6 Flow-assisted corrosion 42 1.6.7 Other main possible mechanisms 43 1.7 Main material challenges and solutions under evaluation 48 1.7.1. Precautions to take during manufacturing to ensure the homogeneity of the through wall property of huge components .. 48 1.7.2 Precautions to take during manufacturing to prevent or mitigate in-service thermal aging, irradiation embrittlement, fatigue and stress corrosion cracking 50 1.7.3 New possible fabrications under evaluation: hot isostatic pressing and additive manufacturing 54 1.8 References 55 Chapter 2 Materials and Processes for Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing 57 Nathalie GRUET, Benoit GWINNER, Pierre LAGHOUTARIS, Beatriz PUGA,Pierre FAUVET, Hervé ANTONY, Valentin ROHR, Eric CAVALETTI,Pierre CHAMBRETTE and Laurent JUNOD 2.1 Introduction and general description of systems 57 2.1.1 Description of the process and the main functions 57 2.1.2 Description of aging conditions (temperature, nitric acid concentration, etc.) 59 2.2 Requirements for materials 60 2.2.1 Functional requirements associated with the process: mechanical resistance, corrosion resistance and erosion resistance 60 2.2.2 Regulatory context and industrial strategy 61 2.3 Current material choices, fabrication and joining 63 2.3.1 Current material choices 63 2.3.2 Fabrication and joining 65 2.4 Basic properties 66 2.4.1 Corrosion of austenitic stainless steels 66 2.4.2 Corrosion of zirconium 74 2.5 Parameters influencing corrosion 76 2.5.1 Corrosion products 77 2.5.2 Oxidizing ions 79 2.5.3 Halides (chlorides and fluorides) 83 2.5.4 Temperature and heat flux 85 2.5.5 Irradiation 86 2.5.6 Influence of the metallurgical state (welding) 87 2.6 Operating experience: some examples 88 2.6.1 Dissolver wheel 88 2.6.2 Fission product evaporator–concentrator machines 90 2.6.3 Zirconium thermosiphons 92 2.7 New developments 96 2.8 References 97 Chapter 3 Materials and Processes for Geological Disposal of High-level Waste and Spent Fuel 107 Fraser KING 3.1 Introduction 107 3.2 Canister requirements 109 3.3 Choice of material, canister design and canister fabrication 114 3.4 Environmental conditions 117 3.5 Canister performance 122 3.5.1 Corrosion performance 122 3.5.2 Mechanical performance 129 3.5.3 Joint mechanical–corrosion performance 131 3.6 Lifetime prediction 132 3.7 Outlook 135 3.8 References 135 Chapter 4 Structural Materials for Sodium Cooled Fast Reactors 145 Hayato YAMASHITA and Tai ASAYAMA 4.1 Introduction 145 4.2 Requirements for structural materials 148 4.3 Development of structural materials and evaluation methods 151 4.3.1 Creep-fatigue evaluation methods 151 4.3.2 Improvement of creep-fatigue properties and materials 154 4.3.3 Creep-fatigue damage evaluation for 316FR steel and modified 9Cr-1Mo steel 157 4.3.4 Effect of operating environment on creep-fatigue properties 159 4.4 Ongoing activities 165 4.5 Conclusion 166 4.6 References 166 Chapter 5 Materials and Processes for Heavy Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors 169 Serguei GAVRILOV 5.1 Introduction 169 5.2 Requirements for materials 176 5.3 Material choices and basic properties 178 5.4 Fabrication and joining 181 5.5 Main material limitations 182 5.5.1 Liquid metal corrosion 182 5.5.2 Liquid metal embrittlement 186 5.5.3 Corrosion fatigue and corrosion creep 187 5.5.4 Limitations for material qualification 188 5.6 Main material challenges and solutions under evaluation 189 5.7 References 193 Chapter 6 Materials and Processes for Molten Salts Reactors 197 Céline CABET, Yann DE CARLAN and Laure MARTINELLI 6.1 Introduction with general description of the systems 197 6.1.1 Background 198 6.1.2 MSR research emphasis 200 6.2 Requirements for materials 203 6.2.1 Graphite performance (thermal spectrum) 203 6.2.2 Neutron reflector (fast spectrum) 204 6.2.3 Structural materials 204 6.3 Legacy materials and basic properties 205 6.4 Main material limitations 207 6.4.1 Corrosion in molten fluorides 208 6.4.2 Corrosion in molten chlorides 212 6.4.3 Tellurium embrittlement 214 6.4.4 Irradiation embrittlement 215 6.5 Mitigation of corrosion by salt purification and chemical control 216 6.5.1 Molten fluorides 217 6.5.2 Molten chlorides 218 6.6 Main material challenges and solutions under evaluation 218 6.7 References 219 Chapter 7 Materials and Processes for Fusion Reactors 225 Giacomo AIELLO 7.1 Introduction and general description of the systems 225 7.2 Requirements for materials 228 7.2.1 Requirements for the structural material of the BB system 228 7.2.2 Requirements for the materials of the Divertor system 230 7.3 Material choices and basic properties 232 7.3.1 EUROFER97 as structural material for the BB 232 7.3.2 Tungsten and copper-chromium-zirconium as armor and heat sink materials for the Divertor targets 238 7.4 Fabrication and joining 246 7.4.1 Manufacturing techniques for the BB 246 7.4.2 Manufacturing techniques for the Divertor targets 249 7.5 Main material limitations and solutions under evaluation 250 7.5.1 Limits for structural material EUROFER97 and development of advanced/risk mitigation steels 251 7.5.2 Advanced armor and heat sink materials for the Divertor targets 254 7.6 References 256 Chapter 8 Advanced Materials: Ceramics and Composite Materials 261 James BRAUN 8.1 Introduction 261 8.2 Current interest in nuclear systems 263 8.3 Manufacturing and joining 266 8.4 Material properties 269 8.5 Main challenges and solutions under evaluation 271 8.6 References 272 Chapter 9 Advanced Materials: Oxide-Dispersion Strengthened Steels 279 Satoshi OHTSUKA, Takashi TANNO, Yasuhide YANO and Takeji KAITO 9.1 General introduction to the ODS 279 9.2 Actual interest in nuclear systems 280 9.3 Fabrication and joining 283 9.4 Material properties 286 9.5 Main material challenges and solutions under evaluation 292 9.6 References 293 Chapter 10 Materials Discovery 299 Andrea JOKISAARI, Cheng SUN and Jian GAN 10.1 Materials discovery – numerical design 299 10.1.1 What is materials discovery and is it needed in the nuclear industry? 299 10.1.2 Historical perspective 300 10.1.3 Modern approach 302 10.1.4 Future needs 307 10.2 Materials discovery – advanced manufacturing processes 309 10.2.1 AM technologies 309 10.2.2 AM materials under nuclear environments 312 10.2.3 Challenges of AM processes for nuclear materials 316 10.2.4 Summary 318 10.3 Materials discovery – high-throughput characterization 318 10.3.1 Material fabrication and sample preparation 319 10.3.2 Microstructural characterization 320 10.3.3 High-throughput mechanical and corrosion property evaluation 322 10.3.4 High-throughput irradiation and characterization 325 10.4 Summary 327 10.5 References 328 List of Authors 337 Index 341