Management of Electronic Waste

List of Contributors xvii Preface xxiii Acknowledgment xxvii 1 An Introduction to Electronic Waste 1 Anshu Priya 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Generation and Composition of E-Waste 3 1.3 Present Status of E-Waste Management and Recycling 4 1.3.1 Pyrometallurgical Process 5 1.3.2 Hydrometallurgical Process 7 1.3.3 Biometallurgy 7 1.4 Comparative Assessment of the Metallurgical Options for Metal Recovery 10 1.5 Future Prospects 10 1.6 Conclusion 11 References 11 2 The Global Challenge of E-Waste Generation 15 Lucas Reijnders 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 The Fate of Steel and Al Alloys 20 2.3 The Fate of Synthetic Polymers 21 2.4 The Fate of Glass Present in E-Waste 23 2.5 The Fate of Geochemically Scarce Elements in Electric and Electronic Components of E-Waste 24 2.6 What Happens to Other Significant Constituents of E-Waste? 26 2.6.1 Li-Ion Batteries 26 2.6.2 Refrigerants 27 2.6.3 Phosphors and Hg Used in Fluorescent Lamps 27 2.7 Conclusion: The Global Challenge of E-Waste 28 References 28 3 Generation, Composition, Collection, and Treatment of E-Waste 39 Monjur Mourshed, Sharifa Khatun, Kaviul Islam, Nahid Imtiaz Masuk, and Mahadi Hasan Masud Abbreviations 39 3.1 Introduction 40 3.2 Global E-Waste Generation Scenario 42 3.3 General Composition of E-Waste 45 3.4 E-Waste Collection Strategies 49 3.4.1 Overview 49 3.5 Formal E-Waste Management 51 3.5.1 Overview 51 3.5.2 Government Authorities/Municipal Authorities 52 3.5.3 Extended Producer Responsibility 53 3.5.4 Extended Consumer Responsibility 55 3.5.5 Take Back Policy 55 3.6 Informal E-Waste Management 56 3.6.1 Overview 56 3.6.2 Local Vendors 57 3.6.3 Others 59 3.7 Treatment of E-Waste 59 3.7.1 Overview 59 3.8 Reuse and Refurbish 60 3.9 Recycle 60 3.10 Recovery 63 3.11 Reduce 64 3.12 Rethinking 65 3.13 Conclusion 65 References 66 4 Toxicity Characterization and Environmental Impact of E-Waste Processing 73 Shahriar Shams, Pg Rusydina Idris, and Ismawi Yusof 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Impact of E-Waste 75 4.2.1 Direct Impact 76 4.2.2 Indirect Impact 76 4.3 Environmental Impact 77 4.3.1 Impact on Soil 77 4.3.2 Impacts on Water 78 4.3.3 Impact on Air 79 4.4 Health Impact 79 4.5 Ecological Impact 80 4.6 Impact from Processing E-Waste 82 4.6.1 Smelting Method 82 4.6.2 Hydrometallurgical Method 83 4.6.3 Physical Separation Method 83 4.6.4 Scrapping Method 84 4.7 Conclusions 84 References 84 5 Exposure to E-Wastes and Health Risk Assessment 88 Atul Kumar, Abhishek Sharma, and Anshu Priya 5.1 Introduction 88 5.2 E-Waste Categorization and Vulnerable Population 91 5.3 Exposure Pathways and Health Implications of E-Waste 93 5.4 Chemical Composition of E-Waste and Health Risks Associated with Their Exposure 96 5.4.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 96 5.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 96 5.4.3 Dioxins 96 5.4.4 Heavy Metals 96 5.5 Health Risk Assessments 100 5.5.1 Noncarcinogenic Risk Assessment 100 5.5.2 Carcinogenic Risk Assessment 101 5.6 E-Waste Management 103 5.7 Conclusion 105 References 106 6 Metal Resources in Electronics: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges 114 Marcelo P. Cenci, Daniel D. Munchen, José C. Mengue Model, and Hugo M. Veit 6.1 Introduction 114 6.2 Composition of Different EEE Components: Past, Present, and Tendencies 115 6.2.1 Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) 115 6.2.2 LED Lamps 118 6.2.3 Screens 122 6.2.4 Batteries 127 6.2.5 Magnets 129 6.3 Environmental Burden of the Electronic Devices 132 6.4 Recycling and Metal Recovery 134 6.4.1 PCBs 134 6.4.2 LED Lamps 135 6.4.3 Screens 135 6.4.4 Batteries 136 6.4.5 Magnets 137 6.5 Major Challenges in Management 137 6.6 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 138 References 139 7 Urban Mining of e-Waste: Conversion of Waste to Wealth 152 Piotr Nowakowski 7.1 The Principles of Urban Mining and the Life Cycle of Electrical and Electronic Equipment 152 7.2 Materials for Recovery from Electrical and Electronic Equipment 156 7.3 The Collections and Social Attitude Toward Disposal of E-Waste 160 7.3.1 Methods of WEEE Collections 160 7.3.2 The Awareness of the Inhabitants When Choosing the Method of Waste Disposal 162 7.4 Discussion and Conclusion 163 References 165 8 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic of E-waste Recycling 173 Deblina Dutta, Rahul Rautela, Pankaj Meena, Venkata Ravi Sankar Cheela, Pranav Prashant Dagwar, and Sunil Kumar 8.1 Introduction 173 8.1.1 Life Cycle Assessment 174 8.1.2 Techno-Economic Analysis 174 8.1.3 System Application in E-Waste System 177 8.2 Life Cycle Assessment of E-waste Systems 179 8.2.1 LCA Methodology 179 8.2.2 Software Used for Modeling 181 8.2.3 Input and Output Modeling Parameters 182 8.2.4 Impact Method and Impact Software 182 8.3 Techno-Economic Analysis 184 8.3.1 Cost Estimation 184 8.3.2 Process Modeling 185 8.4 Conclusion 187 References 188 9 E-waste Recycling: Transition from Linear to Circular Economy 191 Abhinav Ashesh 9.1 Introduction 191 9.2 Linear Economy and its Limitations 192 9.3 Circular Economy – Need of the Hour 193 9.4 The Transition from Linear to Circular Economy 195 9.5 Understanding E-Waste Through Smartphones 196 9.5.1 Increasing Circularity in the Smartphone Market 198 9.6 Conclusion 198 References 199 10 E-Waste Valorization and Resource Recovery 202 Anusha Vishwakarma and Subrata Hait 10.1 Introduction 202 10.2 E-Waste Composition 204 10.3 Resource Recovery Techniques 208 10.3.1 Mechanical Methods 208 10.3.2 Pyrometallurgy 209 10.3.3 Hydrometallurgy 210 10.3.4 Biohydrometallurgy 211 10.4 Valorization of E-Waste for Circular Economy 212 10.4.1 Benefits of Valorization 213 10.4.2 Comparison of Resource Recovery Technique 214 10.4.3 Case Studies 216 10.5 Opportunities and Challenges of Valorization of E-Waste 223 10.6 Conclusion 223 References 224 11 Hydrometallurgical Processing of E-waste and Metal Recovery 234 Amilton Barbosa Botelho Junior, Ummul Khair Sultana, and James Vaughan 11.1 Introduction 234 11.2 Characterization 237 11.3 Leaching Techniques 241 11.3.1 Acid Leaching 242 11.3.1.1 Inorganic Acids 242 11.3.1.2 Organic Acids 243 11.3.2 Alkaline Leaching 243 11.3.3 Cyanide Leaching 244 11.3.4 Thiosulfate and Thiourea Leaching 248 11.4 Separation and Recovery 251 11.4.1 Precipitation 251 11.4.2 Solvent Extraction 252 11.4.3 Ion Exchange Resins 254 11.4.4 Electrodeposition 257 11.5 Emerging Technologies for E-Waste Recycling 258 11.5.1 Ionic Liquids 258 11.5.2 Deep Eutectic Solvents 261 11.5.3 Supercritical Fluids 265 11.5.4 Nanohydrometallurgy 267 11.6 Conclusion and Futures Perspectives 268 Acknowledgments 269 References 270 12 Microbiology Behind Biological Metal Extraction 289 Mishra Bhawana and Pant Deepak 12.1 Background 289 12.2 Overview of E-Waste: A Global Hazard 291 12.3 E-Waste Categories and Classification 292 12.3.1 E-Waste Categories 292 12.3.2 Physical and Chemical Composition of E-Waste 292 12.4 Environmental Hazards Due to E-Waste Composition 293 12.5 Health Risks from E-Waste Exposure 294 12.6 Bioremediation Techniques for E-Waste Management 294 12.7 Why Biological Methods for Metal Extraction from E-Waste 296 12.7.1 Leaching Mechanisms of Heavy Metals from E-Waste 297 12.7.2 Direct Bacterial Leaching 298 12.7.3 Indirect Bacterial Leaching 298 12.7.4 Role of Microbes in Metal Leaching Process from E-Waste 298 12.7.5 Major Microorganisms Involved in Metal Leaching 299 12.7.5.1 Acidophiles 303 12.7.5.2 Cynobacteria 303 12.7.5.3 Thiobacillus 303 12.7.5.4 Thermophilic Bacteria 303 12.7.5.5 Siderophores 304 12.7.5.6 Heterotrophic Microorganisms 304 12.8 Types of Bioremediation 304 12.9 Factors Influencing Microbial Metal Leaching 305 12.9.1 Availability of Nutrients 305 12.9.2 Aeration 306 12.9.3 Substrate 306 12.9.4 Surfactant, Chelators, and Complexing Agents 306 12.9.5 Temperature 306 12.9.6 Genomic and Metagenomic Challenges 307 12.10 Conclusion 307 12.11 Future Prospects 307 References 308 13 Advances in Bioleaching of Rare Earth Elements from Electronic Wastes 321 Xu Zhang, Ningjie Tan, Seyed Omid Rastegar, and Tingyue Gu 13.1 Introduction 321 13.2 REEs Recovery Technology 325 13.2.1 Classification and Characteristics of REEs Recovery and Treatment Technologies 325 13.2.1.1 Pyrometallurgy 326 13.2.1.2 Hydrometallurgy 326 13.2.1.3 Bioleaching 326 13.2.1.4 Electrochemical Technology 332 13.2.1.5 Leaching Using Cell-Free Supernatant 333 13.2.2 Recovery of REEs from WEEE 334 13.3 Post-Leaching/Bioleaching Process 336 13.3.1 Chemical Methods for Post-Leaching Recovery of Metals 336 13.3.1.1 Precipitation 336 13.3.1.2 Solvent Extraction 337 13.3.1.3 Ion Exchange 339 13.3.1.4 Adsorption 340 13.3.1.5 Electrochemical Method 342 13.3.1.6 Bioelectrochemical Method 342 13.4 Conclusion and Outlook 343 References 345 14 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery 359 Tannaz Naseri, Ashkan Namdar, and Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi 14.1 Introduction 359 14.2 Bioprocessing of E-waste for Metal Recovery 360 14.2.1 Autotrophic Bioleaching 361 14.2.2 Heterotrophic Bioleaching 362 14.2.3 Fungal Bioleaching 364 14.2.4 The Bioleaching Reaction: Biochemical Mechanisms 365 14.2.5 Industrial Scales of Bioleaching 366 14.3 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation of Metals 368 14.4 Perspective and Future Aspects 369 Acknowledgments 370 References 370 15 State-of-the-Art Biotechnological Recycling Processes 375 Mital Chakankar, Franziska Lederer, Rohan Jain, Sabine Matys, Sabine Kutschke, and Katrin Pollmann 15.1 Introduction 375 15.2 State-of-the-art Biotechnological Processes 378 15.2.1 Bioleaching 378 15.2.1.1 Biohydrometallurgy Based on Naturally Occurring Peptides 381 15.2.2 Biosorption 382 15.2.2.1 Biomass and Siderophores 382 15.2.2.2 Artificial Metal-Binding Peptides 388 15.2.2.3 Peptide-Based Biohybrid Tools for Resource Recovery 389 15.2.3 Bioreduction 390 15.2.4 Bioflotation 393 15.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 394 References 395 16 Biorecovery of Critical and Precious Metals 406 Shivangi Mathur, Nirmaladevi Saravanan, Soumya V. Menon, and Biswaranjan Paital 16.1 Introduction to Critical and Precious Metals for Recovery 406 16.2 Precious Metal E-waste Recovery in the International Market 407 16.2.1 Expected Fastest-Growing E-waste Recovery: Copper 408 16.2.2 Expected Thriving Local Segment for Valuable Metals Electronic Waste Recapturing: Europe and the Asia Pacific 408 16.3 E-waste Sources and Progression 408 16.4 Conventional E-waste Metal Recovery Methods and Their Limitations 409 16.4.1 Chemical Leaching 409 16.4.1.1 Pretreatment of E-waste 411 16.4.2 Physical Methods (Grinding and Pulverizing) 411 16.4.2.1 Disassembly 411 16.4.2.2 Treatment 412 16.4.2.3 Refinement: Porphyrin Polymers 412 16.4.3 Photocatalysis 413 16.4.4 Pyrometallurgy 415 16.4.4.1 Process of Pyrometallurgy 415 16.4.4.2 Limitations and Drawbacks of Pyrometallurgy 416 16.4.5 Hydrometallurgy 417 16.5 Biorecovery of Valuable Metals from Electronic Waste 418 16.5.1 Microbial Mobilization 418 16.5.1.1 Extraction Through Biologically Mediated Reactions 418 16.5.1.2 Principles and Mechanism of Microbial Leaching 418 16.5.2 Metal Mobilization Mechanism 420 16.5.3 Microorganisms Involved in Bioleaching 422 16.5.3.1 Chemolithoautotrophs 423 16.5.3.2 Heterotrophs 423 16.5.4 Bioreactors used for Bioleaching 423 16.5.5 Biosorption of Precious Metals 425 16.5.6 Biomineralization 425 16.6 Factors Affecting Biorecovery of Precious Metals 426 16.6.1 Oxygen Supply 426 16.6.2 pH 426 16.6.3 Mineral Substrate 427 16.6.4 Nutrients 427 16.6.5 Temperature 427 16.6.6 Presence of Organic Surfactants and Extractants 427 16.6.7 Concentration of Heavy Metals 427 16.7 Confirmatory Tests for Recovered Metals from E-waste 428 16.8 Biorecovery and Environment Sustainability 428 16.9 Biorecovery and Socio-economic Sustainability 429 16.10 Conclusion 429 References 430 17 Biohydrometallurgical Metal Recycling/Recovery from E-waste: Current Trend, Challenges, and Future Perspective 436 Shital C. Thacker, Devayani R. Tipre, and Shailesh R. Dave 17.1 Introduction 436 17.2 Overview of Biological Approach for Recycling of Metals 439 17.2.1 Bioleaching 439 17.2.2 Biosorption 444 17.2.3 Bioaccumulation 445 17.2.4 Bioprecipitation 446 17.2.5 Biomineralization 447 17.2.6 Biomining 448 17.3 Existing E-waste Management Challenges 449 17.3.1 Biotic Factor Restrictions 450 17.3.2 Abiotic Factor Restrictions 450 17.4 Advance Technology for Recycling Metals 451 17.4.1 Biohydrometallurgical Engineering 451 17.4.2 rDNA Technology Involved in Microorganism 452 17.5 Future Development Strategies for E-waste Management 453 17.5.1 Application of Omics Technology for Biohydrometallurgy 453 17.5.2 Combined Multi-omic and Bioinformatics Technology 453 17.6 Conclusion and Recommendation 455 References 456 Index 465