Lignocellulosic Fibers and Wood Handbook

Preface xxi Part 1: Wood and Fibres: Raw Materials 1 Introduction and State-of-the-Art 3 Mohamed Naceur Belgacem and Antonio Pizzi 2 Wood and Wood Fiber Characteristics: Moisture, Biological, Thermal and Weathering 7 Roger M. Rowel 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Moisture 8 2.3 Biological 20 2.4 Thermal 30 2.5 Fire Retardants 36 2.6 Weathering 41 References 45 3 Chemical Composition and Properties of Wood 49 Tatjana Stevanovic 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Cellulose 50 3.3 Hemicelluloses of Wood 68 3.4 Lignin(s) 80 3.5 Wood Extractives 96 References 103 4 Recycled Fibers 107 Nathalie Marlin and Bruno Carre 4.1 The Context and the Key Data 107 4.2 Recovered Paper and Board Grades 110 4.3 Unit Operations for Paper Recycling Processes 113 4.4 Recycling and Deinking Lines 119 4.5 Deinked Pulp Quality and Controls 122 4.6 The Limits of Paper Recycling 129 Acknowledgement 129 References 130 5 Recovered Papers Deinking by Froth Flotation 133 Davide Beneventi, Jeremy Allix, Patrice Nortier and Elisa Zeno 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Mass Transfer Mechanisms 135 5.3 Control of Process Performance by Chemical Additives 143 5.4 Flotation Deinking Process Modeling 149 References 152 6 High-Yield Pulps: An Interesting Concept for Producing Lignocellulosic Fibers 157 Michel Petit-Conil, Michael Lecourt and Valrie Meyer 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 History of Mechanical Pulping 158 6.3 Principles of Mechanical Pulping Processes and Quality of Pulps 161 6.4 Quality of Mechanical Pulping Processes 171 6.5 Industrial Production of Mechanical Pulps 176 6.6 Bleaching of Mechanical Pulps 181 6.7 New Technologies under Development 185 6.8 Conclusion 201 References 201 7 Kraft Pulping 207 Dominique Lachenal 7.1 Introduction 207 7.2 Chemical Reagents 208 7.3 Mechanism of Delignification 209 7.4 Degradation of Carbohydrates during Kraft Pulping 213 7.5 Composition of Kraft Pulps 216 7.6 Improvement of the Kraft Process 217 7.7 Recovery of Cooking Reagents 220 7.8 Conclusion 222 References 222 8 Sulphite Pulping 225 Dmitry V. Evtuguin 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Brief History of Pulping Processes 227 8.3 Sulphite Pulping Chemicals 228 8.4 General Aspects of Sulphite Pulping 230 8.5 Reactions of Sulphite Pulping 234 References 243 Part 2: Wood and Fibres: Composites and Panels 9 Synthetic Adhesives for Wood Fibers and Composites: Chemistry and Technology 247 A. Pizzi 9.1 Introduction 247 9.2 Urea-Formaldehyde (UF) Adhesives 248 9.3 Melamine-Formaldehyde (MF) and Melamine-Urea-Formaldehyde (MUF) Adhesives 252 9.4 Phenolic Resins 255 9.5 Resorcinol Adhesives 259 9.6 Thermosetting Adhesives Based on Natural Resources 262 9.7 Isocyanate and Polyurethane Wood Adhesives 263 9.8 Chemistry of Isocyanate Wood Adhesives 263 9.9 Technology of Isocyanate Adhesives 264 9.10 Conditions of Application of Isocyanate Adhesives for Wood 269 9.11 Emulsion Polymer Isocyanates (EPI) 270 9.12 Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAc), EVAs and Acrylics 271 9.13 Hot Melts 272 References 273 10 Natural Adhesives, Binders and Matrices for Wood and Fiber Composites: Chemistry and Technology 277 A. Pizzi 10.1 Introduction 277 10.2 Tannin Adhesives 278 10.3 Lignin Adhesives 282 10.4 Mixed Tannin-Lignin Adhesives and Resins 285 10.5 Protein Adhesives 286 10.6 Carbohydrate Adhesives 287 10.7 Unsaturated Oil Adhesives 287 10.8 Wood Welding without Adhesives 289 10.9 Alternative Systems to Weld Wood 299 References 301 11 Chemically-Based Modern Wood Composites 305 Gerd Wegener and Elisabeth Windeisen 11.1 Introduction 305 11.2 Conventional Concepts and Products 305 11.3 New Concepts and Products 306 11.4 Outlook 310 References 310 12 Chemical Modification of Solid Wood 313 Philippe Gerardin 12.1 Introduction 313 12.2 Chemical Modifications Involving the Use of Chemicals 314 12.3 Chemical Modifications Using Heat Treatments 317 12.4 Conclusions 320 References 321 13 Modification of Natural Fibers Using Physical Technologies and Their Applications for Composites 323 Stephane Molina 13.1 Introduction 323 13.2 Wave and Radiation Technologies for Cellulosic Fiber Surface Modification 325 13.3 Physicochemical Technologies for Surface Modification of Cellulosic Fibers 334 13.4 Mechanical and Thermomechanical Technologies for Surface Modification of Cellulosic Fibers 335 13.5 Conclusions 340 References 340 14 Wood and Fiber-Based Composites: Surface Properties and Adhesion 345 Douglas Gardner, Gloria Oporto, and William Tze 14.1 Introduction: Practical Significance of Surface Properties and Adhesion 345 14.2 Adhesion Theories and Mechanisms 346 14.3 Interfacial Phenomena in Wood and Fiber Adhesion 347 14.4 Adhesion Interactions as a Function of Length Scale 349 14.5 Wood Bonding Considerations 350 14.6 Wood and Fiber Surface Properties 352 14.7 Wood Surface Modification 354 14.8 Analytical Techniques to Measure Wood and Fiber Surface Properties 359 References 378 15 Wood and Fiber Panels Technology 385 A.Pizzi 15.1 Introduction 385 15.2 Wood as a Substrate 385 15.3 Wood Plasticization 386 15.4 Types of Wood Panels 387 15.5 Influence of the Adhesive in Wood Panel Bonding 388 15.6 Influence of Wood in Wood Panel Production 389 15.7 Production Condition Parameters in Wood Panel Gluing 391 15.8 Correlation between Pressing Parameters and Physical Properties 398 References 402 Part 3: Wood and Fibres: Paper 16 Rheology: From Simple Fluids to Complex Suspensions 407 Raj P. Chhabra 16.1 Introduction 407 16.2 Classification of Fluid Behavior 409 16.3 Time-independent Fluid Behavior 412 16.4 Time-dependent Behavior 419 16.5 Viscoelastic Behavior 421 16.6 Small Amplitude Oscillatory Shear Motion 423 16.7 Elongational Flow 424 16.8 Rheology of Suspensions 427 16.9 Origins of Non-Newtonian Behavior 432 16.10 Implications in Engineering Applications 435 16.11 Concluding Summary 436 Acknowledgement 436 Nomenclature 436 References 437 17 Papermaking and Wet-End Chemistry 439 Eder Siqueira, Evelyne Mauret, Raphael Passas and Mohamed Naceur Belgacem 17.1 Introduction 439 17.2 Wet-end Chemicals, Fillers and Pigments: General Considerations 440 17.3 Functional Additives 444 17.4 Processing Aids 455 References 460 18 Paper Winding 463 David R. Roisutn 18.1 Introduction 463 18.2 Winder Types Found in a Paper Mill 464 18.3 Winder Classes and Types 464 18.4 Effect of Winder Classes and Types on Wound Roll Tightness 466 18.5 Roll Structure Theory and Control Curves 466 18.6 Tightness and Roll Quality Measurement 467 18.7 Winding Theory Stresses inside the Roll 469 18.8 Winding Defects 470 18.9 The Reel 471 18.10 Two-Drum Winders 472 18.11 Duplex Winders 473 18.12 Other Operations near the Rewinder 474 18.13 Automation and Productivity 474 18.14 Profile and Moisture 477 18.15 Paper Mills'Customers 478 18.16 Learning More about Winding 479 Abbreviations used in this section 479 References 479 19 Surface Treatments of Paper 481 Mohamed Naceur Belgacem and Julien Bras 19.1 Surface Sizing of Paper 481 19.2 Paper Coating 481 19.3 Specialty Papers by Coating 486 19.4 Coating Machines 489 References 491 20 Calendering of Papers and Boards: Processes and Basic Mechanisms 493 Didier Chaussy and David Guerin 20.1 Introduction 493 20.2 Calendering Processes 494 20.3 Applying Pressure in a Nip 505 20.4 Heat Transfer in the Nip 511 20.4.1 Heat Transfer Balance 511 20.5 Effect of Calendering on Paper Structure and Surface Properties 518 20.6 Conclusions and Trends in Calendering 525 References 526 21 Color and Color Reversion of Cellulosic and Lignocellulosic Fibers 531 Alain Castellan and Stephane Grelier 21.1 Introduction 531 21.2 Lignin-Free Cellulosic Fibers (Chemical Pulps) 532 21.3 Lignin-rich Cellulosic Fibers (High-yield Pulps) 539 21.4 Conclusion 549 References 549 Part 4 Wood and Fibres: Properties 22 Fire Behavior of Timber and Lignocellulose 555 Pedro Reszka and Jose L. Torero 22.1 Introduction 555 22.2 Wood in Structures 557 22.3 Basic Definition of Fire Growth 560 22.4 Degradation 561 22.5 Experimental Studies on Wood Behavior in Fire 567 22.6 Modeling Wood Behavior in Fire 570 22.7 Flammability Assessment Methods 571 22.8 The Role of Fire Retardants 22.9 Summary 577 References 578 23 Testing and Evaluation of Fire-retardant-treated Wood Products 583 Robert H. White 23.1 Introduction 583 23.2 Conditioning of Specimens 584 23.4 Regulatory Test Methods 587 23.5 Product Specific Regulatory Test Methods 588 23.6 Other Fire Test Methods 589 23.7 Tests for Smoke Obscuration 589 23.8 Other Properties of Fire-retardant-treated Wood 589 23.9 Specifications for Fire-retardant-treated Wood Products 590 23.10 Tests for Commonly Used Fire-retardant Chemicals 590 23.11 Concluding Remarks 591 References 591 24 Modern Timber Houses 595 Andreas Miiller, Hans-Peter Kolb and Maurice Brunner 24.1 Introduction 595 24.2 Tradition and Development of the Swiss Timber House 595 24.3 Timber House Systems 597 24.4 Heat Insulation and Protection against Moisture 600 24.5 Sound Protection 602 24.6 Fire Protection 604 24.7 Multistory Timber Buildings 606 24.8 Conclusions 609 References 610 25 Paper Characterization and Testing 611 Jean-Francis Block 25.1 Introduction and General Considerations 611 25.2 Composition and Structure 612 25.3 Mechanical Properties 616 25.4 Optical Properties 622 Suggested Literature 627 References 627 26 Dimensional Stabilization of Wood and Wood Composites 629 Michael Boonstra 26.1 Introduction 629 26.2 Thermal Modification 633 26.3 Chemical Modification 640 26.4 Wood Polymer Composites (WPC) 648 26.5 Other Applications 651 References 652 Index 657