Heavy Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants

List of Contributors xix Preface xxix Editor Biographies xxxi 1 Plant Response and Tolerance to Heavy Metal Toxicity: An Overview of Chemical Biology, Omics Studies, and Genetic Engineering 1 Lovely Mahawar, Sakshi Pandey, Aparna Pandey, and Sheo Mohan Prasad 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Plant–Metal Interaction 2 1.3 Effect of Heavy Metals on Plants 3 1.3.1 Morphoanatomical Responses 3 1.3.2 Physiological Responses 8 1.3.3 Biochemical Responses 8 1.3.4 Molecular Responses 9 1.4 Mechanisms to Tolerate Heavy Metal Toxicity 10 1.4.1 Avoidance 10 1.4.1.1 Mycorrhizal Association 10 1.4.1.2 Root Exudates 12 1.4.2 Sequestration 12 1.5 Important Strategies for the Enhancement of Metal Tolerance 15 1.5.1 Omics 15 1.5.1.1 Genomics 15 1.5.1.2 Transcriptomics 15 1.5.1.3 Proteomics 17 1.5.1.4 Metabolomics 17 1.5.1.5 Ionomics 18 1.5.1.6 miRNAomics 19 1.5.1.7 Metallomics 19 1.5.2 Genetic Engineering 20 1.5.2.1 CRISPR Technology 20 1.5.2.2 Plastid Transformation 21 1.5.2.3 Gene Silencing 22 1.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 22 References 23 2 Advanced Techniques in Omics Research in Relation to Heavy Metal/Metalloid Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants 35 Ali Raza, Shanza Bashir , Hajar Salehi , Monica Jamla, Sidra Charagh, Abdolkarim Chehregani Rad, and Mohammad Anwar Hossain 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 An Overview of Plant Responses to Heavy Metal Toxicity 36 2.3 How the Integration of Multi-omics Data Sets Helps in Studying the Heavy Metal Stress Responses and Tolerance Mechanisms? 39 2.3.1 The Contribution of State-of-the-Art Genomics-Assisted Breeding 39 2.3.1.1 Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) Mapping 39 2.3.1.2 Genome-Wide Association Studies 41 2.3.2 Transcriptomics 42 2.3.3 Proteomics 44 2.3.4 Metabolomics 46 2.3.5 miRNAomics 47 2.3.6 Phenomics 49 2.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 50 References 50 3 Heavy Metals/Metalloids in Food Crops and Their Implications for Human Health 59 Shihab Uddin, Hasina Afroz, Mahmud Hossain, Jessica Briffa, Renald Blundell, and Md. Rafiqul Islam 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Arsenic 60 3.2.1 Sources and Forms 60 3.2.2 Food Chain Contamination 62 3.2.3 Pharmacokinetic Processes 62 3.2.4 Toxicology Processes 62 3.2.5 Remedial Options 63 3.3 Cadmium 63 3.3.1 Sources and Forms 64 3.3.2 Food Chain Contamination 64 3.3.3 Pharmacokinetic Processes 66 3.3.4 Toxicology Processes 66 3.3.5 Remedial Options 67 3.4 Lead 67 3.4.1 Sources and Forms 68 3.4.2 Food Chain Contamination 68 3.4.3 Pharmacokinetic Processes 68 3.4.4 Toxicology Processes 70 3.4.5 Remedial Options 71 3.5 Chromium 72 3.5.1 Sources and Forms 72 3.5.2 Food Chain Contamination 74 3.5.3 Pharmacokinetic Processes 74 3.5.4 Toxicology Processes 74 3.5.5 Remedial Options 75 3.6 Mercury 76 3.6.1 Sources and Forms 76 3.6.2 Food Chain Contamination 77 3.6.3 Pharmacokinetic Processes 79 3.6.4 Toxicology Processes 79 3.6.5 Remedial Options 80 3.7 Conclusions 81 References 81 4 Aluminum Stress Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Approaches 87 Richa Srivastava, Ayan Sadhukhan, and Hiroyuki Koyama 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Exploration of Al Tolerance QTLs 89 4.3 Unraveling the Genetic Architecture of Al Tolerance from Natural Variation 91 4.4 Identification of Novel Al Tolerance Genes Through Genome-Wide Association Studies 91 4.5 Exploring Expression Level Polymorphisms to Identify Upstream Al Signaling 92 4.6 Comparative Transcriptome Analyses Identify Novel Al Tolerance Genes 93 4.7 Identification of Al Tolerance Genes from Proteomics 95 4.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 99 References 99 5 Breeding Approaches for Aluminum Toxicity Tolerance in Rice and Wheat 105 Buu Chi Bui and Lang Thi Nguyen 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Plant Signaling 107 5.3 Rice Genetic Mapping 107 5.3.1 Linkage Mapping 107 5.3.2 Association Mapping 108 5.4 Root Transcriptome 109 5.5 Wheat Genetic Mapping 114 5.5.1 Wheat MATE Gene Family 116 5.6 Wheat Proteomics 117 5.7 Conclusion 118 References 118 6 Chromium Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 125 Sonali Dubey, Manju Shri, and Debasis Chakrabarty 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Chromium Sources and Bioavailability 126 6.3 Chromium Uptake, Translocation, and Sub-cellular Distribution in plants 127 6.4 Detoxification Mechanisms for Cr 129 6.5 Omics Approaches Used by Plants to Combat Cr Toxicity 130 6.5.1 Transcriptomics 130 6.5.2 Chromium-Induced miRNAs in Plants 132 6.5.3 Metabolomics 133 6.5.4 Proteomics 133 6.6 Phytoremediation of Cr Metal by Plants 134 6.6.1 Phytoremediation Approach for Cr Detoxification 134 6.6.2 Other Strategies Involved in Cr Remediation 135 6.6.3 Phytostabilization/Phytoextraction for Cr Decontamination 136 6.7 Conclusion 136 References 136 7 Manganese Toxicity and Tolerance in Photosynthetic Organisms and Breeding Strategy for Improving Manganese Tolerance in Crop Plants: Physiological and Omics Approach Perspectives 141 Daisuke Takagi 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 The Change in Mn Availability Within the Soil 143 7.3 Why Should We Consider the Occurrence of Mn Toxicity in Plants? Possible Threats of Mn Toxicity in Agricultural Land 144 7.4 The History of Mn Toxicity 146 7.5 The Features of Mn Toxicity in Terrestrial Plants and Possible Molecular Mechanisms 147 7.5.1 The Mechanisms of Emergence of Brownish Patchy Spots in Leaves: The Apoplastic Mn Toxicity 147 7.5.2 The Mechanisms of Foliar Chlorosis Under Excess Mn: Symplastic Mn Toxicity 150 7.6 Breeding Strategy for Overcoming the Future Threat of Excess Mn Conditions 154 7.6.1 Limiting Mn Absorption from Soil to Root 155 7.6.2 Sequestration of Mn from Cytosol to the Vacuole or Apoplast 156 7.6.3 Maintenance of Auxin Homeostasis 157 7.6.4 The Reinforcement of Silicon Uptake and Its Distribution 157 7.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 158 Acknowledgments 158 References 158 8 Iron Excess Toxicity and Tolerance in Crop Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 169 May Sann Aung and Hiroshi Masuda 8.1 Iron Uptake and Translocation Mechanism in Plants 169 8.1.1 Importance of Iron in Living Organisms 169 8.1.2 Fe Acquisition Systems in Plants 170 8.1.3 Fe Translocation Mechanisms in Plants 171 8.2 Fe Excess Toxicity in Plants 171 8.2.1 Fe Excess Toxicity in Global Agriculture 171 8.2.2 Causes of Fe Excess Toxicity in Soils and Its Interaction with Plants 172 8.2.2.1 State of Fe in Soils and Soil pH Effects on Fe Excess Toxicity 172 8.2.2.2 Soil Improvement Methods to Ameliorate Fe Excess Toxicity 173 8.2.2.3 Soil Water and Drainage Effects on Fe Excess Toxicity 173 8.2.3 Effects of Fe Excess Toxicity on Plant Growth 174 8.3 Crop Defense Mechanisms Against Excess Fe and Genes Regulating Fe Excess 175 8.3.1 Defense I: Fe Exclusion from Roots 175 8.3.1.1 Genes Involved in Defense I 176 8.3.2 Defense II: Fe Retention in Roots and Suppression of Fe Translocation to Shoots 177 8.3.3 Defense III: Fe Compartmentalization in Shoots 177 8.3.3.1 Genes Involved in Defense II and IIi 178 8.3.3.2 Role of YSL4 and YSL6 Transporters in Preventing Fe Excess in Early Plant Development 179 8.3.4 Defense IV: ROS Detoxification 179 8.3.4.1 Genes Involved in Defense IV 180 8.3.4.2 GLY1 as a Detoxifying Agent 180 8.4 Research Outlook on Fe Excess Response of Plants 180 8.4.1 Regulation of Fe homeostasis in Plants in Response to Fe Excess Stress 180 8.4.2 Transcription Factors 181 8.4.3 Cis-Regulatory Elements 182 8.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 183 Acknowledgments 183 Author Contributions 183 Disclosures 183 References 183 9 Molecular Breeding for Iron Toxicity Tolerance in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 191 Dorothy A. Onyango, Mathew M. Dida, Khady N. Drame, Benson O. Nyongesa, and Kayode A. Sanni 9.1 Introduction 191 9.2 Role of Iron in Plants and Rice 192 9.3 Iron Toxicity and Its Effects on Rice 192 9.4 Iron Toxicity Tolerance Mechanisms in Rice Plants 193 9.4.1 Fe Exclusion from Roots 193 9.4.2 Fe Retention in Roots and Suppression of Fe Translocation to Shoots 194 9.4.3 Fe Compartmentalization in Shoots 194 9.4.4 ROS Detoxification 195 9.4.5 Candidate Genes Involved in the Mechanisms of Fe Toxicity 196 9.4.6 Genetic Variants for Iron Toxicity Tolerance in Rice Germplasm 197 9.5 Molecular Breeding for Fe Toxicity Tolerance in Rice 197 9.6 Conclusion 200 References 202 10 Cobalt Induced Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Approaches 207 Abdul Salam, Muhammad Siddique Afridi, Ali Raza Khan, Wardah Azhar, Yang Shuaiqi, Zaid Ulhassan, Jiaxuan Qi, Nu Xuo, Yang Chunyan, Nana Chen, and Yinbo Gan 10.1 Introduction 207 10.2 Plant Response to Cobalt Stress 208 10.2.1 Uptake and Translocation of Cobalt in Plants 209 10.3 Cobalt-Induced ROS Generation and Their Damaging Effects 211 10.3.1 ROS-Induced Lipid Peroxidation 211 10.3.2 ROS-Induced Damage to Genetic Material 212 10.4 Cobalt-Induced Plant Antioxidant Defense System 213 10.4.1 Enzymatic Antioxidants 213 10.4.1.1 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) 213 10.4.1.2 Catalases (CAT) 213 10.4.1.3 Glutathione Peroxidases (GPX) 214 10.4.1.4 Glutathione Reductase (GR) 214 10.4.2 Nonenzymatic Antioxidants 215 10.4.2.1 Ascorbic Acid 215 10.4.2.2 Tocopherols 215 10.4.2.3 Reduced Glutathione (GSH) 216 10.5 Omics Approaches in Cobalt Stress Tolerance 216 10.5.1 Transcriptomic 216 10.5.2 Metabolomics 218 10.5.3 Proteomics 219 10.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 220 Acknowledgments 221 References 221 11 Nickel Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants 231 Sondes Helaoui, Marouane Mkhinini, Iteb Boughattas, Noureddine Bousserrhine, and Mohamed Banni 11.1 Introduction 231 11.2 Sources of Ni 232 11.2.1 Natural Sources of Ni 232 11.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Ni 233 11.3 Role of Ni in Plants 233 11.4 Ni Uptake and Accumulation in Plants 233 11.5 Ni Toxicity in Plants 234 11.5.1 Growth Inhibition 234 11.5.2 Photosynthesis Inhibition of Ni 236 11.5.3 Induction of Oxidative Stress 236 11.6 Tolerance Mechanisms 237 11.7 Omics Approaches in Ni Stress Tolerance 238 11.7.1 Transcriptomics 238 11.7.2 Proteomics 239 11.7.3 Metabolomics 240 11.8 Conclusion 240 References 241 12 Copper Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 251 Moreira A, Moraes LAC, Delfim JJ, and Moreti LG 12.1 Introduction 251 12.2 Copper in Plants 253 12.2.1 Functions of Copper 253 12.2.2 Uptake, Transport, Distribution, and Remobilization Mechanisms 255 12.2.3 Deficient, Sufficient, and Toxic Levels of Copper in Plants 255 12.2.4 Copper Sources: Fertilizers and Fungicides 256 12.3 Omics Approaches for Cu Responses and Tolerance in Plants 259 12.3.1 Genomics 259 12.3.2 Transcriptomics 259 12.3.3 Proteomics 261 12.3.4 Metabolomics 263 12.3.5 miRNAomics 264 12.4 Concluding Remarks 266 Acknowledgments 266 References 267 13 Zinc Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 275 Imran Haider Shamsi, Qichun Zhang, Zhengxin Ma, Sibgha Noreen, Muhammad Salim Akhter, Ummar Iqbal, Muhammad Faheem Adil, Muhammad Fazal Karim, and Najeeb Ullah 13.1 Introduction 275 13.1.1 Zinc Uptake and Translocation Mechanisms in Plants 275 13.1.2 Transporters and Metal-Binding Compounds Involved in Zinc Homeostasis 277 13.2 Impact of Excess Zinc on Physio-genetics Aspects of Plants 277 13.2.1 Effect of Zinc Toxicity on Seed Germination and Growth of Plants 278 13.2.2 Effect of Zinc Toxicity on Oxidative Metabolism in Plants 279 13.2.3 Effect of Zn Toxicity on Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants 280 13.3 Plants Stress Adaptation to Zinc Toxicity 281 13.4 Multi-omics Approaches for Zinc Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants 281 13.4.1 Genomics and Metabolomics 281 13.4.2 Proteomics and Transcriptomics 283 13.4.3 miRNA Omics and CRISPR/Cas9 System 284 13.4.4 Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping and Genome-Wide Association Study 286 13.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective 286 Acknowledgments 286 References 287 14 Arsenic Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 293 Barsha Majumder, Palin Sil, and Asok K. Biswas 14.1 Introduction 293 14.2 Occurrence and Distribution of As in the Environment 295 14.3 Arsenic Uptake, Accumulation, and Detoxification in Plants 296 14.3.1 Uptake of Inorganic Arsenic 296 14.3.2 Uptake of Methylated Arsenic 297 14.3.3 Arsenic Accumulation and Detoxification 297 14.3.4 Arsenic Methylation and Volatilization 298 14.4 Influence of Arsenic on Phytotoxicity 298 14.4.1 Germination and Growth 298 14.4.2 Nutrient Uptake 299 14.4.3 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidative Defense 299 14.4.4 Ascorbate–Glutathione Cycle 300 14.4.5 Photosynthesis 300 14.4.6 Respiration 301 14.4.7 Carbohydrate Metabolism 302 14.4.8 Nitrogen Metabolism 302 14.5 Modulation in “Omics” Profiling Under As Challenged Environment 303 14.5.1 Genomic Profiling 303 14.5.2 Transcriptomic Profiling 304 14.5.3 Proteomic Profiling 307 14.5.4 Metabolomic Profiling 308 14.6 Progress in Molecular Biotechnology to Evolve As-Tolerant Plants 308 14.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective 311 Acknowledgment 311 Author Contributions 312 References 312 15 Selenium Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 323 Ali Kıyak, Selman Uluısık, Ertugrul Filiz, and Firat Kurt 15.1 Introduction 323 15.2 Selenium Toxicity in Plants 324 15.2.1 Se-Induced Protein Malformation 324 15.2.2 ROS-Induced Se Phytotoxicity 325 15.3 Selenium Tolerance in Plants 326 15.4 Selenium Biofortification in Plants 328 15.5 Conclusion 329 References 330 16 Breeding for Rice Cultivars with Low Cadmium Accumulation 335 li Tang, Yaokui li, Yan Peng, Bigang Mao, Ye Shao, Zhongying Ji, and Bingran Zhao 16.1 Introduction 335 16.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Cd Accumulation in Rice 335 16.2.1 Cd Uptake 336 16.2.2 Radial Transport and Xylem Loading 338 16.2.3 Distribution of Cd in Shoots 338 16.3 Transgenic Approach for Breeding Low-Cd Rice 339 16.3.1 Traditional Transgenic Technology 339 16.3.2 Genome-Editing Technology 340 16.4 Mutation Breeding for Low-Cd Rice Cultivars 341 16.5 Molecular Marker-Assisted Breeding for Low-Cd Rice Cultivars 342 16.6 Future Perspectives 343 References 344 17 Mercury Toxicity: Plant Response and Tolerance 349 Arifin Sandhi, Abu Bakar Siddique, and Meththika Vithanage 17.1 Introduction 349 17.2 Global Mercury Pollution 350 17.3 Mercury Uptake and Toxicity in Plants 352 17.4 Existence of Differential Plant Response to Hg Stress 353 17.4.1 Plant Morphological Responses 353 17.4.2 Plant Anatomical Responses 354 17.4.3 Cellular Responses 354 17.4.4 Plant Photosynthetic Response 355 17.4.5 Enzymatic and Metabolic Responses 355 17.4.6 Plant Hormonal Responses 356 17.4.7 Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Responses 356 17.5 Plant Tolerance Mechanisms 357 17.5.1 Chelation 357 17.5.2 Enzymatic and Antioxidative Tolerance 358 17.5.3 Hormonal Regulations 359 17.5.4 miRNA-Mediated Tolerance 360 17.6 Phytoremediation Prospects 360 17.7 Conclusion 361 References 362 18 Lead Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants: Insights from Omics Studies 373 Sayyeda Hira Hassan, Yassine Chafik, Manhattan Lebrun, Gabriella Sferra, Sylvain Bourgerie, Gabriella Stefania Scippa, Domenico Morabito, and Dalila Trupiano 18.1 Introduction 373 18.2 Omics’ Contribution in Uncovering Molecular Alterations in Plants Under Pb Exposure 375 18.3 Genetics and Epigenetics Regulations of Pb Toxicity and Tolerance 380 18.4 The Role of Plant Cell Wall, Cell Signaling, and Transduction 382 18.5 Pb-Binding Proteins/Transporters and Their Involvement in Tolerance 384 18.6 Pb-Induced Oxidative Stress and Antioxidative Mechanisms 385 18.7 Metabolic Pathways Associated with Pb Tolerance 388 18.7.1 Sugar/Carbohydrate and Energy Metabolic Pathway 388 18.7.2 Phenylpropanoid Pathway 389 18.7.3 Sulfur-Related Pathway and Phytohormones 390 18.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 392 References 394 19 Interaction of Heavy Metal with Drought/Salinity Stress in Plants 407 Ziqian Li, Wentao Chen, Qianlong Tan, Yuanyuan Hou, Taimoor Hassan Farooq, Baber Iqbal, and Yong li 19.1 Introduction 407 19.2 Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 409 19.2.1 Zinc (Zn) 409 19.2.2 Cadmium (Cd) 410 19.2.3 Aluminium (Al) 411 19.2.4 Other Metals 412 19.3 Photosynthesis 413 19.4 Antioxidant System 414 19.5 Conclusions and Prospects 415 Acknowledgments 416 References 416 20 Hormonal Regulation of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Crop Plants 425 Éderson Akio Kido, Gizele de Andrade Luz, Valquíria da Silva, Maria Fernanda da Costa Gomes, and José Ribamar Costa Ferreira Neto 20.1 Introduction 425 20.2 General Aspects of Plants Under HM Stress 426 20.3 Phytohormone-Mediating Plant Response to HM Stress 427 20.3.1 Abscisic Acid 430 20.3.2 Auxin 432 20.3.3 Brassinosteroid 434 20.3.4 Cytokinin 435 20.3.5 Ethylene 437 20.3.6 Gibberellin 438 20.3.7 Jasmonate 439 20.3.8 Melatonin (MT) 440 20.3.9 Salicylic Acid (SA) 442 20.3.10 Strigolactone (SL) 444 20.4 Crosstalk of Phytohormones in Plants Responding to Heavy Metals 445 20.5 Final Considerations 447 References 448 21 Heavy-Metal-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species and Methylglyoxal Formation and Detoxification in Crop Plants: Modulation of Tolerance by Exogenous Chemical Compounds 461 Beatrycze Nowicka, Tahsina Sharmin Hoque, Sheikh Mahfuja Khatun, Jannatul Naim, Ahmed Khairul Hasan, and Mohammad Anwar Hossain 21.1 Introduction 461 21.2 Heavy-Metal-Induced ROS and Methylglyoxal Production in Plant Cells 464 21.3 Detoxification of ROS and Methylglyoxal in Plant Cells 468 21.4 Exogenous Chemical-Compounds-Mediated Heavy Metal/Metalloid Tolerance in Crop Plants 473 21.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 484 References 486 22 Biochar Amendments in Soils and Heavy Metal Tolerance in Crop Plants 493 Agnieszka Medyńska-Juraszek and Bhakti Jadhav 22.1 Introduction 493 22.2 Heavy Metal Immobilization Mechanisms on Biochar 495 22.2.1 Heavy Metal Immobilization Through Soil pH Modification 496 22.3 Biochar Interactions Through Rhizosphere 496 22.3.1 Effect on Plant Root Development 497 22.3.2 Changes in Elements Uptake from Rhizosphere 498 22.4 Biochar-Induced Plant Respond to Metal Stress 499 22.4.1 Biochar Induces Changes in Photosynthetic Activity 499 22.4.2 Biochar Induces Changes in Antioxidant and Phytohormone Activity 499 22.4.3 Biochar as a Source of Specific Chemical Compounds Affecting Heavy Metal Uptake By Plants 501 22.5 Effect of Biochar on Heavy Metal Concentrations in Different Crops 503 22.6 Effect of Biochar Type on Heavy Metal Immobilization 503 References 504 23 Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria and Their Metabolites: Clean and Green Approaches to Deal with Heavy Metal Toxicity 513 Imtinen Sghaier, Ameur Cherif, and Mohamed Neifar 23.1 Introduction 513 23.2 Chemical Fertilizers and Their Impacts 515 23.2.1 Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers on Atmospheric Ecosystem 515 23.2.2 Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers on Aquatic Ecosystem 515 23.2.3 Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers on Soil 515 23.2.4 Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers on Plants 516 23.3 PGPR and Biofertilization Traits 516 23.3.1 Acquisition of Nutrients 516 23.3.2 Production of Siderophores 517 23.3.3 Production of Exopolysaccharides 517 23.4 Resistance to Abiotic Stress 518 23.5 Biostimulation Potential and PGPR 519 23.6 Biocontrol Potential and PGPR 520 23.7 PGPR and Heavy Metal Bioremediation 521 23.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 524 Acknowledgments 525 References 525 24 Applications of Nanotechnology for Improving Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants 533 Meng Jiang, Yue Song, Mukesh Kumar Kanwar, and Jie Zhou 24.1 Introduction 533 24.2 Impacts of NPs on the HM Stress in Plants 535 24.2.1 Silicon 535 24.2.2 Selenium 535 24.2.3 Iron 536 24.2.4 Zinc Oxide 537 24.2.5 Titanium Dioxide 537 24.2.6 Cerium Dioxide 538 24.3 Mechanisms of NPs to Mitigate the Toxicity of HM 539 24.4 Summary and Prospect 543 References 545 25 The Dynamics of Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals: Recent Progress and Future Perspective 553 Imran Haider Shamsi, Xiaoli Jin, Xin Zhang, Qidong Feng, Zakir Ibrahim, Muhammad Faheem Adil, Muhammad Fazal Karim, and Najeeb Ullah 25.1 Introduction 553 25.1.1 Types of Phytoremediation 554 25.1.1.1 Phytostabilization 554 25.1.1.2 Phytovolatalization 554 25.1.1.3 Phytoextraction 554 25.1.2 Modified Concept 555 25.1.2.1 Chemical-Assisted Phytoremediation Employing Non-hyperaccumulator Plants 556 25.1.2.2 Biochar-Assisted Phytoremediation 556 25.1.2.3 Microbial-Assisted Phytoremediation 557 25.2 Importance of Phytoremediation 557 25.3 Role of Phytoremediation as a Sustainable Solution 558 25.4 Biophilic Design as Phytoremediation in Urban Sustainability 559 25.4.1 Eco-Design 559 25.4.2 Biophilic Design 559 25.4.2.1 Hypothesis of Biophilic 562 25.4.2.2 Dimensions of Biophilic Design 562 25.4.2.3 Direct Experience of Nature 562 25.4.2.4 Indirect Experience of Nature 563 25.4.2.5 Experience of Place and Space 563 25.4.2.6 Sustainable Biophilic Cities 563 25.4.3 Health Benefits 564 25.4.4 Biophilic as an Antidepressant in Urban Environment 565 25.4.5 Economic Benefits 566 25.4.6 Sustainability and Resilience 566 25.5 Conclusion 567 25.6 Future Perspective 568 Acknowledgment 569 References 569 26 Genetic Engineering for Heavy Metal/Metalloid Stress Tolerance in Plants 573 Mohammad Anwar Hossain, Md. Tahjib-Ul-Arif , Sopnil Ahmed Jahin, Abu Bakar Siddique, Mumtarin Haque Mim, Sharif-Ar-Raffi, Muhammad Javidul Haque Bhuiyan, and Beatrycze Nowicka 26.1 Introduction 573 26.2 Mechanisms of Heavy Metal/Metalloid Tolerance in Plants 574 26.3 Strategies for Improving Metal/Metalloid Stress Tolerance in Plants 576 26.4 Transgenic Plants and Heavy Metal/Metalloid Stress Tolerance in Plants 577 26.4.1 Sulfur Metabolism Engineering and Heavy Metal Tolerance 577 26.4.2 Glyoxalase Pathway Genes and Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance 577 26.4.3 Enhanced Antioxidant Defense and Heavy Metal Tolerance 579 26.4.4 Phytochelatin and Metallothionein Genes and Heavy Metal Tolerance 579 26.4.5 Metal Ion Transporter Genes/Proteins and Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance 579 26.5 CRISPR/Cas System and Heavy Metal Tolerance Development 585 26.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 585 Acknowledgment 586 References 586 Index 593