Harmful Algal Blooms

List of Contributors xvii Acknowledgments xxi Introduction xxiii 1 Causes of Harmful Algal Blooms 1 Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. Burkholder 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 “Getting There”: The Classic Perspective on Introduced Species and Links to Cultural Eutrophication 2 1.2.1 Introduced Species 2 1.2.2 Anthropogenically Introduced Nutrients 3 1.3 “Being There”: Blooms and Why They Succeed 5 1.3.1 Nutrient-Related HAB 5 1.3.2 Resource Ratios, Nutrient Stoichiometry, and Optimal Nutrient Ratios 6 1.3.3 Diversity in Use of Forms of Nitrogen 9 1.3.4 Toxicity 10 1.3.5 Mixotrophy: Use of “Packaged” and Dissolved Particulate Nutrients 12 1.3.6 Other Adaptations 13 1.4 “Staying There”: Links to Physical Structure and Climate 14 1.4.1 Physical Structure: Large-Scale and Small-Scale Natural Hydrological Features 14 1.4.2 Physical Dynamics: Anthropogenic Hydrological Changes 15 1.4.3 Reinforcing Feedbacks 16 1.4.3.1 Trophic Disruptions 16 1.4.3.2 Biogeochemical Alterations 17 1.4.4 Climate Change 18 1.5 Conclusions 20 Acknowledgments 21 References 21 2 Detection and Surveillance of Harmful Algal Bloom Species and Toxins 39 Gregory J. Doucette, Linda K. Medlin, Pearse McCarron, and Philipp Hess 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Organism Detection 41 2.2.1 Visual/Optical 41 2.2.1.1 Light Microscopy (LM)/Utermöhl’s 41 2.2.1.2 Light Microscopy/Flow Cytometry 41 2.2.1.3 In Vivo Fluorometry 42 2.2.1.4 Spectral Absorbance/Spectroradiometry 43 2.2.2 Molecular 43 2.2.2.1 Whole Cell Format 44 2.2.2.2 Cell-Free Format 47 2.3 Toxin Detection 51 2.3.1 In Vivo Assays 53 2.3.1.1 Rat Bioassay 58 2.3.1.2 Mouse Bioassay 58 2.3.2 In Vitro Assays 59 2.3.2.1 Functional Assays 60 2.3.2.2 Structural Assays 66 2.3.2.3 Biosensors 71 2.3.3 Analytical Techniques 72 2.3.3.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Optical Detection (UV or FLD) 73 2.3.3.2 Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) 75 2.3.3.3 Other Analytical Methods: Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF), and Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization (LAESI) 78 2.3.3.4 Perspectives 79 2.4 Autonomous, In Situ Technologies 80 2.4.1 Environmental Sample Processor (McLane Research Laboratories) 81 2.4.2 Imaging Flow Cytobot (McLane Research Laboratories) 83 2.4.3 Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator (aka BreveBuster; Mote Marine Laboratory) 84 2.4.4 CytoBuoy (CytoBuoy b.v.) 85 2.4.5 SPATT Passive Samplers 86 2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 87 Disclaimer 89 References and Further Reading 89 3 Modeling Marine Harmful Algal Blooms: Current Status and Future Prospects 115 Kevin J. Flynn and Dennis J. McGillicuddy, Jr. 3.1 Introduction 115 3.2 Building Models to Describe Ecological Events 117 3.3 Limitations to What Models Can Do, and Why 119 3.3.1 Building Models 119 3.3.2 Model Complexity 119 3.3.3 The Need for Data 120 3.3.4 Validating Models 121 3.4 Modeling T-HAB and ED-HAB Events 121 3.5 How Good Are Current HAB Models? 122 3.6 Future Modeling of T-HAB and ED-HAB: Managing Expectations 128 3.7 Improving Our Capabilities 129 3.7.1 Changes in the Biological–Modeling Interface 129 Acknowledgments 130 References 130 4 Harmful Algal Blooms and Shellfish 135 Leila Basti, Hélène Hégaret, and Sandra E. Shumway 4.1 Introduction 135 4.2 Major Shellfish Poisonings 136 4.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 136 4.2.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 137 4.2.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 138 4.2.4 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 139 4.2.5 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 139 4.3 Other Toxins: Pectenotoxins (PTX) and Yessotoxins (YTX) 140 4.4 Emerging Shellfish Poisonings 141 4.5 Toxin Uptake, Accumulation, and Depuration 142 4.6 Shellfish Contamination in North America 143 4.6.1 Bivalves 143 4.6.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Contamination 143 4.6.1.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Contamination 149 4.6.1.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Contamination 150 4.6.1.4 Amnesic Shellfish Contamination 151 4.6.2 Gastropods 154 4.6.3 Crustaceans 162 4.7 Impacts on Shellfish 163 4.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 164 References and Further Reading 167 5 Vulnerabilities of Marine Mammals to Harmful Algal Blooms 191 Margaret H. Broadwater, Frances M. Van Dolah, and Spencer E. Fire 5.1 Introduction 191 5.2 Overview of Algal Toxins 192 5.2.1 Brevetoxins 193 5.2.2 Ciguatoxins 199 5.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 200 5.2.4 Domoic Acid 201 5.2.5 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 206 5.2.6 Other Algal and Cyanobacterial Toxins 209 5.3 Impacts of Algal Toxins Specific to Marine Mammals 210 5.3.1 The Effects of Toxin Exposure Depend on Animal Physiology and Behavior 210 5.3.2 Emerging Issues: Non-acute and Multiple Toxin Exposure 211 5.3.3 Prospects for Managing Impacts of HAB 211 5.4 Considerations for the Evaluation of HAB Toxins in Marine Mammals 212 5.4.1 Sampling Marine Mammals for HAB Toxin Analysis 213 5.4.2 Priority Needs for Investigating HAB Toxin Involvement in Marine Mammal Morbidity and Mortality 214 Abbreviations 214 References and Further Reading 215 6 Interactions between Seabirds and Harmful Algal Blooms 223 Corinne M. Gibble and Brian A. Hoover 6.1 Introduction 223 6.2 Historical Interactions between HAB and Seabirds 224 6.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 224 6.2.2 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 227 6.2.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning 228 6.2.4 Akashiwo sanguinea 228 6.2.5 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 229 6.2.6 CyanoHAB 230 6.3 Improved Monitoring and Establishment of Causality 231 6.3.1 Coordinating Monitoring and Pathology to Confirm Relationships between HAB and Seabird Mortality 231 6.3.2 Seabirds as Biological Indicators 233 6.4 Implications for Conservation 234 References 235 7 Food Web and Ecosystem Impacts of Harmful Algae 243 JoAnn M. Burkholder, Sandra E. Shumway, and Patricia M. Glibert 7.1 Introduction 243 7.2 Approaches, Pitfalls, Progress, and Goals 277 7.3 High-Biomass Algal Blooms 279 7.4 Emerging Recognition of the Roles of Allelochemicals 282 7.4.1 Microalgae 283 7.4.2 Thalloid Macroalgae 285 7.4.3 Filamentous Mat-Forming Macroalgae 287 7.5 Toxigenic Algae in Aquatic Food Webs 287 7.5.1 Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Blooms across North America 289 7.5.2 Toxic Prymnesium parvum Blooms and Fish Communities in Two Texas Rivers 290 7.5.3 Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia Blooms in Coastal Upwelling Areas 292 7.5.4 Toxic Alexandrium Blooms in the Northeast 292 7.5.5 Toxic Karenia brevis Blooms along the Florida Coast 293 7.6 Ecosystem-Disruptive Algal Blooms 294 7.7 Future Directions 295 Appendix A: Scientific Names for Organisms Listed by Common Name in This Chapter, Also Indicating Species Affected by Karenia brevis (Kb) 297 References and Further Reading 301 8 Assessing the Economic Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms: A Summary of Existing Literature, Research Methods, Data, and Information Gaps 337 Charles M. Adams, Sherry L. Larkin, Porter Hoagland, and Brian Sancewich 8.1 Introduction 337 8.2 Overview 338 8.3 Research Methodologies 338 8.4 Sources and Types of Data 347 8.5 Spatial and Temporal Scopes 348 8.6 Nature of the Hazard 349 8.7 Current Research Gaps 350 8.8 Conclusion 351 Acknowledgments 351 References and Further Reading 351 9 Public Health and Epidemiology 355 Lynn M. Grattan, Joe Schumacker, Andrew Reich, and Sailor Holobaugh 9.1 Introduction 355 9.2 What Is Public Health and Epidemiology? 355 9.3 HAB and Human Illness 356 9.3.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 357 9.3.1.1 Exposure 357 9.3.1.2 Clinical Symptoms 361 9.3.1.3 Treatment 361 9.3.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 361 9.3.2.1 Exposure 361 9.3.2.2 Clinical Syndrome 361 9.3.2.3 Treatment 362 9.3.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 362 9.3.3.1 Exposure 362 9.3.3.2 Clinical Illness 363 9.3.3.3 Treatment 363 9.3.4 Brevetoxin Inhalation Syndrome (BIS) 363 9.3.4.1 Exposure 363 9.3.4.2 Clinical Illness 363 9.3.4.3 Treatment 363 9.3.5 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 363 9.3.5.1 Exposure 363 9.3.5.2 Clinical Syndrome 364 9.3.5.3 Treatment 364 9.3.6 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) 364 9.3.6.1 Exposure 364 9.3.6.2 Clinical Illness 364 9.3.6.3 Treatment 365 9.3.7 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 365 9.3.7.1 Exposure 365 9.3.7.2 Clinical Syndrome 366 9.3.7.3 Treatment 366 9.3.8 Toxic Cyanobacteria 366 9.3.8.1 Exposure 366 9.3.8.2 Clinical Syndromes 366 9.3.8.3 Treatment 366 9.4 The HAB Manager’s Role in Preventing HAB-Related Illnesses 367 9.4.1 HAB Management Exemplars 367 9.4.2 The Native American Perspective from Washington State, USA: Domoic Acid and Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 367 9.4.2.1 Background 367 9.4.2.2 Tribal Capacity and Inclusion 369 9.4.2.3 Lessons Learned 369 9.4.3 The Florida Department of Health Perspective 369 9.4.3.1 Harmful Algal Blooms 370 9.5 HAB-Related Stressors and Human Resilience 370 9.6 Conclusion 371 References and Further Reading 371 10 Marine Biotoxin and Harmful Algae Monitoring and Management 377 Gregg W. Langlois and Steve L. Morton 10.1 Introduction 377 10.2 Identifying Sampling Program Needs 383 10.3 Developing a Sampling Program for Shellfish Monitoring 384 10.3.1 Shellfish Sampling Stations 384 10.3.2 Monitoring Shellfish Toxicity 386 10.4 Developing a Sampling Program for Phytoplankton Monitoring 388 10.4.1 Phytoplankton Sampling Stations 388 10.4.2 Monitoring Phytoplankton 389 10.5 Monitoring Other Fisheries 394 10.6 Novel Approaches and Advanced Tools to Enhance Monitoring Programs 396 10.6.1 Diversifying Program Participation: Volunteer Monitors 396 10.6.2 Field Testing for Toxins: PSP and ASP 399 10.6.3 Screening Tests for Toxins: DSP and PSP 401 10.6.4 SPATT 401 10.6.5 Oceanographic Data 402 10.7 Management Considerations 408 10.7.1 Commercial Shellfish 408 10.7.2 Recreational Shellfishing 411 10.8 Phytoplankton Sampling Protocol Examples 413 10.9 HAB Forecasting Links 413 Acknowledgments 413 References and Further Reading 413 11 Harmful Algal Bloom Education and Outreach 419 Mare Timmons, Mary Sweeney-Reeves, and Steve L. Morton 11.1 Introduction 419 11.2 K–12 Education 426 11.3 Web-Based and Distance Learning Education 427 11.4 Citizen Science 428 11.4.1 Contributions of Citizen Science 429 11.4.2 Connecting Citizen Science to Ocean Learning 431 11.4.2.1 Safety 431 11.4.2.2 Training Sessions 431 11.5 Conclusion 432 References and Further Reading 432 12 Prevention, Control, and Mitigation of Harmful Algal Bloom Impacts on Fish, Shellfish, and Human Consumers 435 Kevin G. Sellner and J.E. (Jack) Rensel 12.1 Introduction 435 12.2 HAB Prevention 435 12.2.1 Aquaculture Site Selection or Relocation 435 12.2.2 Nutrient Load Reductions 436 12.2.3 Phytoplankton Mixing, Increasing Turbulence, and Decreasing Residence Times (Mostly Freshwater Systems) 440 12.2.4 Reducing HA Introductions 441 12.3 Preventing and Reducing HAB Impacts on Shellfish and Fish 442 12.3.1 Preventing Human and Animal Exposures 442 12.3.1.1 Shellfish and Finfish Monitoring 442 12.3.1.2 Depuration and Detoxification 444 12.3.1.3 Food Processing 444 12.3.1.4 Cooking 445 12.3.1.5 Aerosols 445 12.3.1.6 Medical Treatments 445 12.4 HAB Controls 445 12.4.1 Protections 445 12.4.2 Biomass Removal 446 12.4.3 Capping 446 12.4.4 Nutrient Trapping in Sediments 446 12.4.5 Reductions of Algal Resting Stages (Cysts) 446 12.5 Mitigation of HAB 447 12.5.1 Detection 447 12.5.2 Chemical Additions 448 12.5.3 Flocculation 451 12.5.4 Barely Straw (Hordeum vulgare) 454 12.5.5 Other Treatments 455 12.5.5.1 UV Exposure 455 12.5.5.2 Cavitation 455 12.5.5.3 Ultrasound 455 12.5.5.4 Electrolysis 456 12.5.5.5 Hydraulics and Mixing 456 12.5.5.6 Biological Controls 456 12.6 Shellfish 458 12.7 Fish Mariculture 459 12.7.1 HAB Mitigation for Fish Mariculture 459 12.7.2 Best Management Practices for Fish Mariculture Siting, Including HAB and Eutrophication Issues 460 12.7.2.1 Local Land Use 460 12.7.2.2 Plankton Monitoring and Water Quality Assessments 460 12.7.2.3 Physical Hydrographic Considerations 461 12.7.2.4 Vertical Mixing Considerations 461 12.7.3 Mitigation of HAB at Fish Mariculture Facilities 461 12.7.4 HAB Mitigation Methods for Fish Mariculture 462 12.7.4.1 Feeding and Handling Practices 462 12.8 Conclusions 470 Acknowledgments 474 References 474 Further Reading 492 13 Harmful Algae Introductions: Vectors of Transfer, Mitigation, and Management 493 Shauna Murray and Gustaaf Hallegraeff 13.1 Summary 493 13.2 The Biogeographic Ranges of Harmful Algal Bloom Species 493 13.3 Vectors of Transfer 494 13.3.1 Natural Factors 494 13.3.2 Ballast Water 494 13.3.3 Translocation of Aquaculture Products 494 13.4 Molecular Evidence for Introductions of New Species to a Region 494 13.4.1 The Stalk-Forming Freshwater Fouling Diatom Didymosphenia geminata 495 13.4.2 Alexandrium pacificum and A. minutum in European and Japanese Waters 496 13.4.3 Gymnodinium catenatum in Australia and Europe 497 13.5 Prevention and Risk Reduction 498 13.5.1 Code of Practice on Translocation with Aquaculture Products 498 13.5.2 Warning for HAB in Ballast Water-Uptake Zones and When Translocating Aquaculture Products 498 13.5.3 Ballast Water Management 498 13.5.4 Other Precautionary Measures 500 13.6 Emergency Treatment Options 501 References 502 14 Culture and Culture Collections 507 Gary H. Wikfors and Steve L. Morton 14.1 Introduction 507 14.2 Step 1: Sampling the Environment 507 14.3 Step 2: Processing a Field Sample in the Laboratory to Confirm Presence of the Target Organism 509 14.4 Step 3: From Spark to Flame 511 14.5 Step 4: Long-Term Perpetuation of HAB Cultures 511 14.6 Epilogue 512 Further Reading 513 15 Harmful Macroalgal Blooms in a Changing World: Causes, Impacts, and Management 515 Brian E. Lapointe, JoAnn M. Burkholder, and Kathryn L. Van Alstyne 15.1 Introduction 515 15.2 Freshwater and Other Inland Macroalgae 516 15.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine Macroalgae 519 15.4 Influences on Bloom Development 525 15.5 Nutrient Pollution 525 15.5.1 Sources 525 15.5.2 Indicators of Nutrient Pollution and Nutrient Sources 526 15.6 Uptake/Adsorption of Other Contaminants 526 15.7 Impacts on Human Health: Macroalgae as Substrata for Pathogens 527 15.8 Non-native Invasions 528 15.9 Ecological and Ecosystem-Level Impacts 529 15.9.1 Regime Shifts 530 15.9.2 Freshwater Macroalgal HAB 532 15.9.2.1 Filamentous Cyanobacteria 532 15.9.2.2 Filamentous Green Algae 533 15.9.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine HAB 534 15.10 Effects of Blooms on the Chemistry of the Oceans and the Atmosphere 535 15.10.1 Changes to Carbonate Chemistry and pH 535 15.10.2 Release of Materials and Chemicals into Seawater 536 15.10.3 Release of Volatile Compounds 537 15.11 Management Strategies 537 15.12 Economic Impacts 539 15.13 Recycling Macroalgae Biomass 541 15.14 Forecast 542 References and Further Reading 542 16 Harmful Algal Species Fact Sheets 561 Alexandrium 563 Allan D. Cembella Amphidomataceae 575 Urban Tillmann Aureococcus anophagefferens Hargraves et Sieburth & Aureoumbra lagunensis DeYoe et Stockwell – Brown Tides 583 Christopher J. Gobler Ceratium furca (Ehrenberg) Claparede & Lachmann 585 Steve L. Morton Chattonella marina 587 Carmelo R. Tomas Cochlodinium – Rust Tide 589 Christopher J. Gobler Cyanobacteria 591 JoAnn M. Burkholder, Christopher J. Gobler, and Judith M. O’Neil Dinophysis 597 Steve L. Morton Fibrocapsa japonica 599 Carmelo R. Tomas Gambierdiscus 601 Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison Robertson Gymnodinium catenatum 605 Allan D. Cembella and Christine J. Band-Schmidt Heterosigma akashiwo 613 Carmelo R. Tomas Karenia brevis (Davis) Hansen et Moestrup – Florida Red Tide 615 Larry E. Brand Ostreopsis 617 Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison Robertson Pfiesteria piscicida Steidinger & Burkholder and Pfiesteria shumwayae Glasgow & Burkholder 621 JoAnn M. Burkholder and Harold G. Marshall Prorocentrum 625 Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. Burkholder Prymnesium parvum (Carter) – “Golden Algae” 629 Daniel L. Roelke and Schonna R. Manning Pseudo-nitzschia – seriata group; delicatissima group 633 Raphael Kudela Takayama 637 Larry E. Brand Appendix 1 Websites That Routinely Distribute Bulletins on the Presence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) for Public Health 639 Appendix 2 State Agencies Providing Information and Updates on Toxic and Harmful Algal Blooms and Water Quality 641 Appendix 3 List of General Web Resources 645 Index 647