FUNCTIONALIZED CARBON NANOTUBES FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS The book highlights established research and technology on current and emerging trends and biomedical applications of functionalized carbon nanotubes by providing academic researchers and scientists in industry, as well as high-tech start-ups, with knowledge of the modern practices that will revolutionize using functionalized carbon nanotubes.
Nanotechnology suggests fascinating opportunities for a variety of applications in biomedical fields, including bioimaging and targeted delivery of biomacromolecules into cells. Numerous strategies have been recommended to functionalize carbon nanotubes with raised solubility for efficient use in biomedical applications. Functionalized carbon nanotubes have unique arrangements and extravagant mechanical, thermal, magnetic, optical, electrical, surface, and chemical properties, and the combination of these features gives them widespread biomedical applications. Functionalized carbon nanotubes are relatively flexible and interact with the cell membranes and penetrate different biological tissues owing to a “snaking” effect, therefore both the pharmacological and toxicological profiles of functionalized carbon nanotubes have gathered much attention in recent times.
This book covers a broad range of topics relating to carbon nanotubes, from synthesis and functionalization to applications in advanced biomedical devices and systems. As they possess unique and attractive physical, chemical, optical, and even magnetic properties for various applications, considerable effort has been made to employ functionalized carbon nanotubes as new materials for the development of novel biomedical tools, such as diagnostic sensors, imaging agents, and drug/gene delivery systems for both diagnostics and clinical treatment.
Audience
The book is intended for a very broad audience of researchers and scientists working in the fields of nanomaterials, nanomedicine, bioinspired nanomaterials, nanotechnology, and biomedical application of nanomaterials.
Preface xv Part 1: Overview of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 1 1 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: An Introduction 3 Sheerin Masroor 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Carbon Nanotube’s Classification 6 1.3 Structural and Morphological Analysis of Carbon Nanotubes 7 1.4 Synthetic Techniques of Carbon Nanotubes 8 1.5 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 9 1.6 Commercial Scale Use of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 12 1.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 14 References 15 2 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis and Characterization 21 Neelam Sharma, Shubhra Pareek, Rahul Shrivastava and Debasis Behera 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Synthesis Methods 24 2.2.1 Arc Discharge 24 2.2.2 Laser Ablation 25 2.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 26 2.3 Characterization 27 2.3.1 Raman Spectroscopy 27 2.3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) 28 2.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 29 2.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 29 2.3.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 30 2.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 31 2.3.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 32 2.4 Functionalized Routes of CNTs 33 2.4.1 Surface Oxidation 33 2.4.2 Doping Heteroatoms 33 2.4.3 Alkali Activation 33 2.4.4 Sulfonation 34 2.4.5 Halogenation 34 2.4.6 Grafting 34 2.4.6.1 Grafting via Oxygen-Containing Groups 35 2.4.6.2 Grafting via Diazonium Compounds 36 2.4.6.3 Other Grafting Methods 37 2.4.7 Non-Covalent Functionalization of CNTs 37 2.4.8 Deposition on Functionalized CNTs 37 2.4.9 Physiochemical Approaches 38 2.4.10 Electrochemical Deposition 38 2.4.11 Electroless Deposition 39 2.5 Conclusion 39 References 40 3 Carbon Nanotubes: Types of Functionalization 49 Manilal Murmu, Debanjan Dey, Naresh Chandra Murmu and Priyabrata Banerjee 3.1 Introduction 50 3.2 Carbon Nanotubes 50 3.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 52 3.3.1 Covalent Functionalization 52 3.3.2 Non-Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 58 3.3.2.1 Reversibility in Non-Covalent Functionalization 63 3.3.2.2 Solvent Variation in Non-Covalent Functionalization 64 3.3.3.3 pH of the System in Non-Covalent Functionalization 64 3.3.3.4 Temperature Responsive System in Non-Covalent Functionalization 65 3.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 65 Acknowledgements 65 Web Links 66 References 66 4 Functionalization Carbon Nanotubes Innovate on Medical Technology 75 Afroz Aslam, Jeenat Aslam, Hilal Ahmad Parray and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Functionalization CNTs for Biomedical Applications 78 4.3 Potential Applications of CNTs in Cancer Therapy 79 4.3.1 Anti-Tumor Immunotherapy 80 4.3.2 Anti-Tumor Hyperthermia Therapy 80 4.3.3 Anti-Tumor Chemotherapy 81 4.3.4 Other Cancer Treatment Strategies 82 4.4 Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders 82 4.5 Treatment of Infectious Diseases 84 4.6 CNTs-Based Transdermal Drug Delivery 85 4.7 f-CNTs for Vaccination 86 4.8 Application of f-CNTs in Tissue Engineering 86 4.9 Conclusion 88 Important Websites 89 References 89 Part 2: Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Current and Emerging Biomedical Applications 95 5 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Applications in Biosensing 97 N. Palaniappan, Nidhi Vashistha and Ruby Aslam 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 CNTs-Based Biosensors 99 5.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 100 5.2.1.1 Electrochemical Enzyme Sensors 100 5.2.1.2 Electrochemical Immunosensors 101 5.2.1.3 Electrochemical DNA Sensors 102 5.2.1.4 Non-Biomolecule Based Electrochemical Sensors 104 5.2.2 Optical CNT Sensors 105 5.2.3 Field-Effect CNTs Sensors 106 5.2.4 CNT Human Strain Sensor 107 5.3 Conclusion 108 References 108 6 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Drug Delivery Systems 117 N. Palaniappan, Małgorzata Kujawska and Kader Poturcu 6.1 Introduction 118 6.2 Nanoparticles-Doped Carbon Nanotubes 121 6.3 Brain-Targeted Delivery 123 6.4 The Organic Molecules Functionalized CNTs as Drug Delivery Vehicles 125 6.5 Functionalized CNTs with Nanoparticles for Drug Active Molecular Mechanism 126 6.5.1 Future of Scope of Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Drug Delivery Application 126 6.6 Conclusion 127 References 127 7 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Gene Therapy 139 Tejas Agnihotri, Tanuja Shinde, Manoj Gitte, Pankaj Kumar Paradia, Rakesh Kumar Tekade and Aakanchha Jain 7.1 Introduction 140 7.2 Functionalized CNTs and Gene Therapy 141 7.3 Cellular Uptake of CNT 146 7.4 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes and Cancer 147 7.5 Miscellaneous Diseases and Gene Delivery Through Functionalized CNT 150 7.6 Toxicology and Environmental Aspects of Functionalized CNT 158 7.6.1 Cellular Toxicity 159 7.6.2 Liver Toxicity 159 7.6.3 Central Nervous System Toxicity 160 7.6.4 Cardiovascular Toxicity 161 7.7 Regulatory Concerns Over Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 162 7.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 164 Important Website 165 References 165 8 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis 171 Irshad Ahmad, Talat Parween, Lina Khandare, Aafaq Tantray and Weqar Ahmad Siddiqi 8.1 Introduction 172 8.2 Characteristic Properties of CNTs and Their Performance 175 8.2.1 Physicochemical Properties of CNTs 176 8.3 The Techniques of CNTs Functionalization 177 8.4 Application of Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Therapy and Diagnostic 180 8.4.1 The Use of Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Treatment 180 8.4.2 Intracellular Targeting Using Carbon Nanotubes 180 8.4.2.1 Nucleus Targeting 181 8.4.2.2 Cytoplasm Targeting 181 8.4.2.3 Mitochondria Targeting 181 8.4.3 CNTs for Immunotherapy 182 8.4.4 Cancer Stem Cell Inhibition 183 8.5 Carbon Nanotubes in Cancer Diagnosis 183 8.5.1 CNTs in Cancer Imaging 184 8.5.1.1 Raman Imaging 184 8.5.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging 184 8.5.1.3 Ultrasonography 184 8.5.1.4 Photoacoustic Imaging 185 8.5.1.5 Near‐Infrared Fluorescence Imaging 185 8.6 Future Prospects 186 8.7 Conclusion 186 Important Websites 187 References 188 9 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Biomedical Imaging: The Recent Advances 197 Alina Abbas, Saman Zehra, Ruby Aslam, Mohammad Mobin and Shahidul Islam bhat 9.1 Introduction 198 9.2 CNT-Based Imaging Methods 199 9.2.1 Fluorescence Imaging 200 9.2.2 Raman Imaging 204 9.2.3 Photoacoustic Imaging 207 9.2.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 209 9.2.5 Nuclear Imaging 212 9.3 Prospects and Challenges 212 9.4 Conclusion 214 References 214 10 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Artificial Bone Tissue Engineering 225 Sougata Ghosh and Ebrahim Mostafavi 10.1 Introduction 226 10.2 CNT-Based Scaffolds and Implants 230 10.2.1 Hydroxyapatite 231 10.2.2 Polymers 234 10.2.2.1 Poly(ε-Caprolactone) 235 10.2.2.2 Polymethyl-Methacrylate 237 10.2.2.3 Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide) 238 10.2.2.4 Poly-L-Lactic Acid 240 10.2.2.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol 241 10.2.2.6 Others 242 10.2.3 Biopolymers 242 10.2.3.1 Chitosan 244 10.2.3.2 Collagen 244 10.2.3.3 Others 247 10.3 Intellectual Property Rights and Commercialization Aspects 248 10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 251 References 252 11 Application of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Biomimetic/Bioinspired Systems 257 Mohammad Mobin, Ruby Aslam, Saman Zehra, Jeenat Aslam and Shahidul Islam bhat 11.1 Introduction 258 11.2 Naturally Occurring Materials 259 11.2.1 Nacre and Bone 259 11.2.2 Petal Effect and Gecko Feet 259 11.2.3 Lotus Effect 260 11.2.4 Structural Colors, Antireflection, and Light Collection 261 11.3 Bioinspired Functionalized CNTs Material 261 11.4 Challenges and Solutions in Using CNTs 272 11.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 272 References 274 12 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes: Applications in Tissue Engineering 281 Ajahar Khan, Khalid A. Alamry and Raed H. Althomali 12.1 Introduction 282 12.2 Structural, Physical, and Chemical Properties 284 12.3 Interactions and Biodegradation of CNTs with Biomolecule 287 12.4 Bio-Security of CNT-Based Scaffolds Toward In Vivo Analyses 288 12.5 CNTs Towards the Bone Compatibility 293 12.6 Applications of Functionalized CNTs in Tissue Engineering 294 12.6.1 Functionalized CNTs for Cardiac Tissue Engineering 294 12.6.2 Functionalized CNTs for Neuronal Tissue Regeneration 297 12.6.3 Functionalized CNT for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 298 12.6.4 CNT for Bone Tissue Regeneration 300 12.7 Future Perspectives and Challenges 303 12.8 Conclusion 304 Important Websites 305 References 305 13 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Cell Tracking 319 Sagar Salave, Dhwani Rana, Jyotsna Vitore and Aakanchha Jain Abbreviations 319 13.1 Introduction 320 13.2 Carbon Nanotubes 321 13.2.1 Cellular Interaction of CNTs 325 13.3 Cellular Tracking via CNT 325 13.3.1 Effect of the Surface Coating of CNTs in Single-Particle Tracking 328 13.4 3D Tracking Using CNTs 328 13.4.1 Detection of Single Protein Molecules Through CNTs 329 13.4.2 Stem Cell Labeling and Tracking Through CNTs 330 13.4.3 Labelling and Tracking of Human Pancreatic Cells Through CNTs 330 13.4.4 CNT as Macrophage Carrying Microdevices 331 13.4.4.1 Intracellular Fluctuations and CNT 331 13.4.5 Limitations of CNTs 332 13.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspective 332 Important Links 333 Acknowledgment 333 References 333 14 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes for Treatment of Various Diseases 339 Ajahar Khan, Khalid A. Alamry and Raed H. Althomali 14.1 Introduction 340 14.2 CNTs: Basic Structure, and Synthesis Methods 342 14.2.1 Structure and Synthesis of CNTs 342 14.2.2 Arc Discharge Technique 342 14.2.3 Laser Ablation Technique 342 14.2.4 Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 343 14.3 Functionalization of CNTs 343 14.3.1 Covalent Functionalization 344 14.3.2 Non-Covalent Functionalization 344 14.4 Toxicity/Bio-Safety Profile of Carbon Nanotubes 346 14.5 Investigating the Promising Biomedical Effects of Functionalized CNTs 349 14.5.1 Functionalized CNTs-Based Remediation of Infectious Diseases 350 14.5.2 Functionalized CNTs for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders (CNS) 350 14.5.3 Functionalized CNTs for Gene Delivery 351 14.5.4 Implication of Functionalized CNTs in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment 354 14.5.5 Functionalized CNTs for Drug Targeting and Release 357 14.6 Future Prospective 362 14.7 Conclusion 363 Important Websites 364 References 365 15 Role of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Antimicrobial Activity: A Review 377 Monika Aggarwal, Samina Husain and Basant Kumar 15.1 Introduction 378 15.2 Introduction to CNTs 378 15.2.1 Classification of CNTs 379 15.2.2 Structure of CNTs 381 15.3 Overview on CNTs Functionalization 382 15.3.1 Types of Functionalization 384 15.4 Anti-Microbial Activity of f-CNTs: Interaction and Action 387 15.5 Antifungal Activity of f-CNTs 388 15.6 Antibacterial Activity of f-CNTs 390 15.6.1 For SWNTs 390 15.6.2 For MWCNTs 392 15.7 Commercial Application of Antimicrobial Activity of f-CNTs 400 15.8 Overview on Antimicrobial Activity of f-CNTs 401 15.9 Future Scope 405 15.10 Conclusion 405 Acknowledgement 406 References 406 Index 413
Jeenat Aslam, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Taibah University, Yanbu, Al-Madina, Saudi Arabia. She obtained her PhD in Surface Science/Chemistry at the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Her research is mainly focused on materials & corrosion, nanotechnology, and surface chemistry. Dr. Jeenat has published several research and review articles in peer-reviewed international journals and has edited 2 books and has contributed 20 book chapters. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an adjunct professor and director of laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, United States. His research is focused on the applications of nanotechnology and advanced materials, environmental management, analytical chemistry, and other various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of around a hundred books. Ruby Aslam, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, India. She graduated with an M.Sc. in Chemistry at Aligarh Muslim University and presented her M.Phil. dissertation and PhD-thesis in Applied Chemistry, also at Aligarh Muslim University. She has published widely on corrosion inhibition and corrosion protective coatings.
