Ethics and Technology

PREFACE xvii New to the Fifth Edition xviii Audience and Scope xix Organization and Structure of the Book xx The Web Site for Ethics and Technology xxii A Note to Students xxiii Note to Instructors: A Roadmap for Using This Book xxiii A Note to Computer Science Instructors xxiv Acknowledgments xxv FOREWORD xxvii CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cyberethics: Concepts, Perspectives, and Methodological Frameworks 1 Scenario 1–1: Hacking into the Mobile Phones of Celebrities 1 1.1 Defining Key Terms: Cyberethics and Cybertechnology 2 1.1.1 What Is Cybertechnology? 3 1.1.2 Why the Term Cyberethics? 3 1.2 The Cyberethics Evolution: Four Developmental Phases in Cybertechnology 4 1.3 Are Cyberethics Issues Unique Ethical Issues? 7 Scenario 1–2: Developing the Code for a Computerized Weapon System 8 Scenario 1–3: Digital Piracy 8 1.3.1 Distinguishing between Unique Technological Features and Unique Ethical Issues 9 1.3.2 An Alternative Strategy for Analyzing the Debate about the Uniqueness of Cyberethics Issues 10 1.3.3 A Policy Vacuum in Duplicating Computer Software 10 1.4 Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics: Three Distinct Perspectives 12 1.4.1 Perspective #1: Cyberethics as a Field of Professional Ethics 12 1.4.2 Perspective #2: Cyberethics as a Field of Philosophical Ethics 14 1.4.3 Perspective #3: Cyberethics as a Field of Sociological/Descriptive Ethics 16 Scenario 1–4: The Impact of Technology X on the Pleasantville Community 17 1.5 A Comprehensive Cyberethics Methodology 19 1.5.1 A “Disclosive” Method for Cyberethics 19 1.5.2 An Interdisciplinary and Multilevel Method for Analyzing Cyberethics Issues 21 1.6 A Comprehensive Strategy for Approaching Cyberethics Issues 21 1.7 Chapter Summary 22 Review Questions 23 Discussion Questions 23 Scenarios for Analysis 23 Endnotes 24 References 25 Further Readings 26 Online Resources 26 CHAPTER 2 Ethical Concepts And Ethical Theories: Frameworks For Analyzing Moral Issues 27 Scenario 2–1: The Case of the “Runaway Trolley”: A Classic Moral Dilemma 27 2.1 Ethics and Morality 29 2.1.1 What Is Morality? 29 2.1.2 The Study of Morality: Three Distinct Approaches for Evaluating and Justifying the Rules Comprising a Moral System 32 2.2 Discussion Stoppers as Roadblocks to Moral Discourse 35 2.2.1 Discussion Stopper #1: People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues 36 2.2.2 Discussion Stopper #2: Who Am I to Judge Others? 37 2.2.3 Discussion Stopper #3: Morality Is Simply a Private Matter 39 2.2.4 Discussion Stopper #4: Morality Is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide 40 Scenario 2–2: The Price of Defending Moral Relativism 41 2.3 Why Do We Need Ethical Theories? 43 2.4 Consequence‐Based Ethical Theories 44 2.4.1 Act Utilitarianism 46 Scenario 2–3: A Controversial Policy in Newmerica 46 2.4.2 Rule Utilitarianism 46 2.5 Duty‐Based Ethical Theories 47 2.5.1 Rule Deontology 48 Scenario 2–4: Making an Exception for Oneself 48 2.5.2 Act Deontology 49 Scenario 2–5: A Dilemma Involving Conflicting Duties 50 2.6 Contract‐Based Ethical Theories 51 2.6.1 Some Criticisms of Contract‐Based Theories 52 2.6.2 Rights‐Based Contract Theories 53 2.7 Character‐Based Ethical Theories 54 2.7.1 Being a Moral Person vs. Following Moral Rules 54 2.7.2 Acquiring the “Correct” Habits 55 2.8 Integrating Aspects of Classical Ethical Theories into a Single Comprehensive Theory 56 2.8.1 Moor’s Just‐Consequentialist Theory and Its Application to Cybertechnology 57 2.8.2 Key Elements in Moor’s Just‐Consequentialist Framework 58 2.9 Chapter Summary 59 Review Questions 59 Discussion Questions 60 Scenarios for Analysis 60 Endnotes 61 References 61 Further Readings 62 CHAPTER 3 Critical Reasoning Skills for Evaluating Disputes in Cyberethics 63 SCENARIO 3–1: Reasoning About Whether to Download Software from “Sharester” 63 3.1 What Is Critical Reasoning? 64 3.1.1 Some Basic Concepts: (Logical) Arguments and Claims 64 3.1.2 The Role of Arguments 65 3.1.3 The Basic Structure of an Argument 65 3.2 Constructing an Argument 67 3.3 Valid Arguments 68 3.4 Sound Arguments 71 3.5 Invalid Arguments 73 3.6 Inductive Arguments 74 3.7 Fallacious Arguments 75 3.8 A Seven‐Step Strategy for Evaluating Arguments 77 3.9 Identifying Some Common Fallacies 79 3.9.1 Ad Hominem Argument 79 3.9.2 Slippery Slope Argument 80 3.9.3 Fallacy of Appeal to Authority 80 3.9.4 False Cause Fallacy 81 3.9.5 Fallacy of Composition/Fallacy of Division 81 3.9.6 Fallacy of Ambiguity/Equivocation 82 3.9.7 The False Dichotomy/Either–Or Fallacy/All‐or‐Nothing Fallacy 82 3.9.8 The Virtuality Fallacy 83 3.10 Chapter Summary 84 Review Questions 84 Discussion Questions 85 Scenarios for Analysis 85 Endnotes 85 References 86 Further Readings 86 CHAPTER 4 Professional Ethics, Codes of Conduct, and Moral Responsibility 87 Scenario 4–1: Fatalities Involving the Oerlikon GDF‐005 Robotic Cannon 87 4.1 What Is Professional Ethics? 88 4.1.1 What Is a Profession? 89 4.1.2 Who Is a Professional? 89 4.1.3 Who Is a Computer/IT Professional? 90 4.2 Do Computer/IT Professionals Have Any Special Moral Responsibilities? 90 4.3 Professional Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct 91 4.3.1 The Purpose of Professional Codes 92 4.3.2 Some Criticisms of Professional Codes 93 4.3.3 Defending Professional Codes 94 4.3.4 The IEEE‐CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice 95 4.4 Conflicts of Professional Responsibility: Employee Loyalty and Whistle‐Blowing 97 4.4.1 Do Employees Have an Obligation of Loyalty to Employers? 97 4.4.2 Whistle‐Blowing 98 Scenario 4–2: NSA Surveillance and the Case of Edward Snowden 101 4.5 Moral Responsibility, Legal Liability, and Accountability 103 4.5.1 Distinguishing Responsibility from Liability and Accountability 104 4.5.2 Accountability and the Problem of “Many Hands” 105 Scenario 4–3: The Case of the Therac‐25 Machine 105 4.5.3 Legal Liability and Moral Accountability 106 4.6 Do Some Computer Corporations Have Special Moral Obligations? 107 4.7 Chapter Summary 108 Review Questions 109 Discussion Questions 109 Scenarios for Analysis 110 Endnotes 110 References 111 Further Readings 112 CHAPTER 5 Privacy and Cyberspace 113 Scenario 5–1: A New NSA Data Center 113 5.1 Privacy in the Digital Age: Who Is Affected and Why Should We Worry? 114 5.1.1 Whose Privacy Is Threatened by Cybertechnology? 115 5.1.2 Are Any Privacy Concerns Generated by Cybertechnology Unique or Special? 115 5.2 What Is Personal Privacy? 117 5.2.1 Accessibility Privacy: Freedom from Unwarranted Intrusion 118 5.2.2 Decisional Privacy: Freedom from Interference in One’s Personal Affairs 118 5.2.3 Informational Privacy: Control over the Flow of Personal Information 118 5.2.4 A Comprehensive Account of Privacy 119 Scenario 5–2: Descriptive Privacy 119 Scenario 5–3: Normative Privacy 120 5.2.5 Privacy as “Contextual Integrity” 120 Scenario 5–4: Preserving Contextual Integrity in a University Seminar 121 5.3 Why Is Privacy Important? 121 5.3.1 Is Privacy an Intrinsic Value? 122 5.3.2 Privacy as a Social Value 123 5.4 Gathering Personal Data: Surveillance, Recording, and Tracking Techniques 123 5.4.1 “Dataveillance” Techniques 124 5.4.2 Internet Cookies 124 5.4.3 RFID Technology 125 5.4.4 Cybertechnology and Government Surveillance 126 5.5 Analyzing Personal Data: Big Data, Data Mining, and Web Mining 127 5.5.1 Big Data: What, Exactly, Is It, and Why Does It Threaten Privacy? 128 5.5.2 Data Mining and Personal Privacy 128 Scenario 5–5: Data Mining at the XYZ Credit Union 129 5.5.3 Web Mining: Analyzing Personal Data Acquired from Our Interactions Online 132 5.6 Protecting Personal Privacy in Public Space 132 5.6.1 PPI vs. NPI 133 Scenario 5–6: Shopping at SuperMart 133 Scenario 5–7: Shopping at Nile.com 134 5.6.2 Search Engines and the Disclosure of Personal Information 135 5.7 Privacy Legislation and Industry Self‐Regulation 137 5.7.1 Industry Self‐Regulation and Privacy‐Enhancing Tools 137 5.7.2 Privacy Laws and Data Protection Principles 139 5.8 A Right to “Be Forgotten” (or to “Erasure”) in the Digital Age 140 Scenario 5–8: An Arrest for an Underage Drinking Incident 20 Years Ago 141 5.8.1 Arguments Opposing RTBF 142 5.8.2 Arguments Defending RTBF 143 5.8.3 Establishing “Appropriate” Criteria 144 5.9 Chapter Summary 146 Review Questions 146 Discussion Questions 147 Scenarios for Analysis 148 Endnotes 148 References 149 Further Readings 150 CHAPTER 6 Security in Cyberspace 151 Scenario 6–1: The “Olympic Games” Operation and the Stuxnet Worm 151 6.1 Security in the Context of Cybertechnology 152 6.1.1 Cybersecurity as Related to Cybercrime 153 6.1.2 Security and Privacy: Some Similarities and Some Differences 153 6.2 Three Categories of Cybersecurity 154 6.2.1 Data Security: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of Information 155 6.2.2 System Security: Viruses, Worms, and Malware 156 6.2.3 Network Security: Protecting our Infrastructure 156 Scenario 6–2: The “GhostNet” Controversy 157 6.3 Cloud Computing and Security 158 6.3.1 Deployment and Service/Delivery Models for the Cloud 158 6.3.2 Securing User Data Residing in the Cloud 159 6.3.3 Assessing Risk in the Cloud and in the Context of Cybersecurity 160 6.4 Hacking and “The Hacker Ethic” 160 6.4.1 What Is “The Hacker Ethic”? 161 6.4.2 Are Computer Break‐ins Ever Ethically Justifiable? 163 6.5 Cyberterrorism 164 6.5.1 Cyberterrorism vs. Hacktivism 165 Scenario 6–3: Anonymous and the “Operation Payback” Attack 166 6.5.2 Cybertechnology and Terrorist Organizations 167 6.6 Information Warfare (IW) 167 6.6.1 Information Warfare vs. Conventional Warfare 167 6.6.2 Potential Consequences for Nations that Engage in IW 168 6.7 Chapter Summary 170 Review Questions 170 Discussion Questions 171 Scenarios for Analysis 171 Endnotes 171 References 172 Further Readings 174 CHAPTER 7 Cybercrime and Cyber‐Related Crimes 175 Scenario 7–1: Creating a Fake Facebook Account to Catch Criminals 175 7.1 Cybercrimes and Cybercriminals 177 7.1.1 Background Events: A Brief Sketch 177 7.1.2 A Typical Cybercriminal 178 7.2 Hacking, Cracking, and Counter Hacking 178 7.2.1 Hacking vs. Cracking 179 7.2.2 Active Defense Hacking: Can Acts of “Hacking Back” or Counter Hacking Ever Be Morally Justified? 179 7.3 Defining Cybercrime 180 7.3.1 Determining the Criteria 181 7.3.2 A Preliminary Definition of Cybercrime 181 7.3.3 Framing a Coherent and Comprehensive Definition of Cybercrime 182 7.4 Three Categories of Cybercrime: Piracy, Trespass, and Vandalism in Cyberspace 183 7.5 Cyber‐Related Crimes 184 7.5.1 Some Examples of Cyber‐Exacerbated vs. Cyber‐Assisted Crimes 184 7.5.2 Identity Theft 185 7.6 Technologies and Tools for Combating Cybercrime 187 7.6.1 Biometric Technologies 187 7.6.2 Keystroke‐Monitoring Software and Packet‐Sniffing Programs 188 7.7 Programs and Techniques Designed to Combat Cybercrime in the United States 189 7.7.1 Entrapment and “Sting” Operations to Catch Internet Pedophiles 189 Scenario 7–2: Entrapment on the Internet 189 7.7.2 Enhanced Government Surveillance Techniques and the Patriot Act 189 7.8 National and International Laws to Combat Cybercrime 190 7.8.1 The Problem of Jurisdiction in Cyberspace 190 Scenario 7–3: A Virtual Casino 191 Scenario 7–4: Prosecuting a Computer Corporation in Multiple Countries 192 7.8.2 Some International Laws and Conventions Affecting Cybercrime 192 Scenario 7–5: The Pirate Bay Web Site 193 7.9 Cybercrime and the Free Press: The Wikileaks Controversy 193 7.9.1 Are WikiLeaks’ Practices Ethical? 194 7.9.2 Are WikiLeaks’ Practices Criminal? 194 7.9.3 WikiLeaks and the Free Press 195 7.10 Chapter Summary 196 Review Questions 197 Discussion Questions 197 Scenarios for Analysis 198 Endnotes 199 References 199 Further Readings 200 CHAPTER 8 Intellectual Property Disputes in Cyberspace 201 Scenario 8–1: Streaming Music Online 201 8.1 What Is Intellectual Property? 202 8.1.1 Intellectual Objects 203 8.1.2 Why Protect Intellectual Objects? 203 8.1.3 Software as Intellectual Property 204 8.1.4 Evaluating a Popular Argument Used by the Software Industry to Show Why It Is Morally Wrong to Copy Proprietary Software 205 8.2 Copyright Law and Digital Media 206 8.2.1 The Evolution of Copyright Law in the United States 206 8.2.2 The Fair‐Use and First‐Sale Provisions of Copyright Law 207 8.2.3 Software Piracy as Copyright Infringement 208 8.2.4 Napster and the Ongoing Battles over Sharing Digital Music 209 8.3 Patents, Trademarks, and Trade Secrets 212 8.3.1 Patent Protections 212 8.3.2 Trademarks 213 8.3.3 Trade Secrets 214 8.4 Jurisdictional Issues Involving Intellectual Property Laws 214 8.5 Philosophical Foundations for Intellectual Property Rights 215 8.5.1 The Labor Theory of Property 215 Scenario 8–2: DEF Corporation vs. XYZ Inc. 216 8.5.2 The Utilitarian Theory of Property 216 Scenario 8–3: Sam’s e‐Book Reader Add‐on Device 217 8.5.3 The Personality Theory of Property 217 Scenario 8–4: Angela’s B++ Programming Tool 218 8.6 The “Free Software” and “Open Source” Movements 219 8.6.1 GNU and the Free Software Foundation 219 8.6.2 The “Open Source Software” Movement: OSS vs. FSF 220 8.7 The “Common Good” Approach: An Alternative Framework for Analyzing the Intellectual Property Debate 221 8.7.1 Information Wants to be Shared vs. Information Wants to be Free 223 8.7.2 Preserving the Information Commons 225 8.7.3 The Fate of the Information Commons: Could the Public Domain of Ideas Eventually Disappear? 226 8.7.4 The Creative Commons 227 8.8 Pipa, Sopa, and Rwa Legislation: Current Battlegrounds in the Intellectual Property War 228 8.8.1 The PIPA and SOPA Battles 228 8.8.2 RWA and Public Access to Health‐Related Information 229 Scenario 8–5: Elsevier Press and “The Cost of Knowledge” Boycott 229 8.8.3 Intellectual Property Battles in the Near Future 231 8.9 Chapter Summary 231 Review Questions 231 Discussion Questions 232 Scenarios for Analysis 232 Endnotes 233 References 234 Further Readings 235 CHAPTER 9 Regulating Commerce and Speech in Cyberspace 236 Scenario 9–1: Anonymous and the Ku Klux Klan 236 9.1 Introduction and Background Issues: Some Key Questions and Critical Distinctions Affecting Internet Regulation 237 9.1.1 Is Cyberspace a Medium or a Place? 238 9.1.2 Two Categories of Cyberspace Regulation: Regulating Content and Regulating Process 239 9.1.3 Four Modes of Regulation: The Lessig Model 240 9.2 Digital Rights Management (Drm) 242 9.2.1 Some Implications of DRM for Public Policy Debates Affecting Copyright Law 242 9.2.2 DRM and the Music Industry 243 Scenario 9–2: The Sony Rootkit Controversy 243 9.3 E‐Mail Spam 244 9.3.1 Defining Spam 244 9.3.2 Why Is Spam Morally Objectionable? 245 9.4 Free Speech vs. Censorship and Content Control in Cyberspace 246 9.4.1 Protecting Free Speech 247 9.4.2 Defining Censorship 247 9.5 Pornography in Cyberspace 248 9.5.1 Interpreting “Community Standards” in Cyberspace 248 9.5.2 Internet Pornography Laws and Protecting Children Online 249 9.5.3 Virtual Child Pornography 250 9.5.4 Sexting and Its Implications for Current Child Pornography Laws 252 Scenario 9–3: A Sexting Incident Involving Greensburg Salem High School 252 9.6 Hate Speech and Speech that Can Cause Physical Harm to Others 254 9.6.1 Hate Speech on the Web 254 9.6.2 Online “Speech” that Can Cause Physical Harm to Others 255 9.7 “Network Neutrality” and the Future of Internet Regulation 256 9.7.1 Defining Network Neutrality 256 9.7.2 Some Arguments Advanced by Net Neutrality’s Proponents and Opponents 257 9.7.3 Future Implications for the Net Neutrality Debate 257 9.8 Chapter Summary 258 Review Questions 259 Discussion Questions 259 Scenarios for Analysis 260 Endnotes 260 References 261 Further Readings 262 CHAPTER 10 The Digital Divide, Democracy, and Work 263 Scenario 10–1: Digital Devices, Social Media, Democracy, and the “Arab Spring” 264 10.1 The Digital Divide 265 10.1.1 The Global Digital Divide 265 10.1.2 The Digital Divide within Nations 266 Scenario 10–2: Providing In‐Home Internet Service for Public School Students 267 10.1.3 Is the Digital Divide an Ethical Issue? 268 10.2 Cybertechnology and the Disabled 270 10.3 Cybertechnology and Race 271 10.3.1 Internet Usage Patterns 272 10.3.2 Racism and the Internet 272 10.4 Cybertechnology and Gender 273 10.4.1 Access to High‐Technology Jobs 274 10.4.2 Gender Bias in Software Design and Video Games 275 10.5 Cybertechnology, Democracy, and Demotratic Ideals 276 10.5.1 Has Cybertechnology Enhanced or Threatened Democracy? 276 10.5.2 How has Cybertechnology Affected Political Elections in Democratic Nations? 279 10.6 The Transformation and the Quality of Work 280 10.6.1 Job Displacement and the Transformed Workplace 281 10.6.2 The Quality of Work Life in the Digital Era 283 Scenario 10–3: Employee Monitoring and the Case of Ontario vs. Quon 284 10.7 Chapter Summary 287 Review Questions 287 Discussion Questions 288 Scenarios for Analysis 288 Endnotes 289 References 289 Further Readings 291 CHAPTER 11 Online Communities, Virtual Reality, and Artificial Intelligence 292 Scenario 11–1: Ralph’s Online Friends and Artificial Companions 292 11.1 Online Communities and Social Networking Services 293 11.1.1 Online Communities vs. Traditional Communities 294 11.1.2 Blogs and Some Controversial Aspects of the Bogosphere 295 Scenario 11–2: “The Washingtonienne” Blogger 295 11.1.3 Some Pros and Cons of SNSs (and Other Online Communities) 296 Scenario 11–3: A Suicide Resulting from Deception on MySpace 298 11.2 Virtual Environments and Virtual Reality 299 11.2.1 What Is Virtual Reality (VR)? 300 11.2.2 Ethical Aspects of VR Applications 301 11.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 305 11.3.1 What Is AI? A Brief Overview 305 11.3.2 The Turing Test and John Searle’s “Chinese Room” Argument 306 11.3.3 Cyborgs and Human–Machine Relationships 307 11.4 Extending Moral Consideration to AI Entities 310 Scenario 11–4: Artificial Children 310 11.4.1 Determining Which Kinds of Beings/Entities Deserve Moral Consideration 310 11.4.2 Moral Patients vs. Moral Agents 311 11.5 Chapter Summary 312 Review Questions 313 Discussion Questions 313 Scenarios for Analysis 313 Endnotes 314 References 315 Further Readings 316 CHAPTER 12 Ethical Aspects of Emerging and Converging Technologies 317 Scenario 12–1: When “Things” Communicate with One Another 317 12.1 Converging Technologies and Technological Convergence 318 12.2 Ambient Intelligence (AmI) and Ubiquitous Computing 319 12.2.1 Pervasive Computing, Ubiquitous Communication, and Intelligent User Interfaces 320 12.2.2 Ethical and Social Aspects of AmI 321 Scenario 12–2: E. M. Forster’s “(Pre)Cautionary Tale” 322 Scenario 12–3: Jeremy Bentham’s “Panopticon/Inspection House” (Thought Experiment) 323 12.3 Nanotechnology and Nanocomputing 324 12.3.1 Nanotechnology: A Brief Overview 324 12.3.2 Ethical Issues in Nanotechnology and Nanocomputing 326 12.4 Autonomous Machines 329 12.4.1 What Is an AM? 329 12.4.2 Some Ethical and Philosophical Questions Pertaining to AMs 332 12.5 Machine Ethics and Moral Machines 336 12.5.1 What Is Machine Ethics? 336 12.5.2 Designing Moral Machines 337 12.6 A “Dynamic” Ethical Framework for Guiding Research in New and Emerging Technologies 340 12.6.1 Is an ELSI‐Like Model Adequate for New/Emerging Technologies? 340 12.6.2 A “Dynamic Ethics” Model 341 12.7 Chapter Summary 341 Review Questions 342 Discussion Questions 342 Scenarios for Analysis 343 Endnotes 343 References 344 Further Readings 346 GLOSSARY 347 INDEX 353