Environment

1 Introducing Environmental Science and Sustainability 1 Human Impacts on the Environment 1 Increasing Human Numbers 2 Development, Environment, and Sustainability 3 Population, Resources, and the Environment 4 Types of Resources 4 Resource Consumption 5 Ecological Footprint 6 The IPAT Model 6 Sustainability 8 Sustainability and the Tragedy of the Commons 9 Global Plans for Sustainable Development 9 Environmental Science 10 Earth Systems and Environmental Science 11 Science as a Process 11 Addressing Environmental Problems 15 Addressing Environmental Problems 15 Environmental Science in Practice: Lake Washington 16 2 Environmental Laws, Economics, and Ethics 21 A Brief Environmental History of the United States 21 Protecting Forests 22 Establishing and Protecting National Parks and Monuments 22 Conservation in the Mid-20th Century 23 The Environmental Movement of the Late 20th Century 24 U.S. Environmental Legislation 26 Environmental Policy Since 1970 27 Economics and the Environment 29 Strategies for Pollution Control 31 Critiques of Environmental Economics 32 Natural Resources, the Environment, and National Income Accounts 32 Environmental Ethics, Values, and Worldviews 34 Environmental Ethics 34 Environmental Worldviews 35 Environmental Justice 36 3 Ecosystems and Energy 41 What Is Ecology? 42 The Energy of Life 44 The First Law of Thermodynamics 45 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 46 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 46 Case in Point Life Without the Sun 47 The Flow of Energy through Ecosystems 48 Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers 48 The Path of Energy Flow: Who Eats Whom in Ecosystems 49 Case in Point How Humans Have Affected the Antarctic Food Web 51 Ecological Pyramids 52 Ecosystem Productivity 53 Human Impact on Net Primary Productivity 54 4 Ecosystems and the Physical Environment 57 The Cycling of Materials within Ecosystems 57 The Carbon Cycle 58 The Nitrogen Cycle 60 The Phosphorus Cycle 61 The Sulfur Cycle 64 The Hydrologic Cycle 65 Solar Radiation 66 Temperature Changes with Latitude 67 Temperature Changes with the Seasons 68 The Atmosphere 68 Layers of the Atmosphere 68 Atmospheric Circulation 69 The Global Ocean 71 Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean 71 Vertical Mixing of Ocean Water 72 Ocean Interactions with the Atmosphere 73 Weather and Climate 75 Precipitation 75 Tornadoes 76 Tropical Cyclones 78 Case in Point Hurricane Katrina 79 Internal Planetary Processes 79 Earthquakes 80 Volcanoes 81 5 Ecosystems and Living Organisms 85 Evolution: How Populations Change Over Time 85 Natural Selection 86 Modern Synthesis 86 Evolution of Biological Diversity: The Organization of Life 87 Principles of Population Ecology 89 Population Density 90 How Do Populations Change in Size? 90 Maximum Population Growth 91 Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity 91 Factors that Affect Population Size 93 Reproductive Strategies 94 Survivorship 95 Metapopulations 95 Biological Communities 96 The Ecological Niche 97 Competition 98 Symbiosis 99 Predation 102 Keystone Species 103 Species Richness in a Community 104 Species Richness, Ecosystem Services, and Community Stability 105 Case in Point Gardens as Ecosystems 106 Community Development 106 Primary Succession 107 Secondary Succession 108 6 Major Ecosystems of the World 113 Earth’s Major Biomes 113 Tundra: Cold Boggy Plains of the Far North 114 Boreal Forests: Conifer Forests of the North 116 Temperate Rain Forests: Lush Temperate Forests 117 Temperate Deciduous Forests: Trees That Shed Their Leaves 118 Grasslands: Temperate Seas of Grass 118 Chaparral: Thickets of Evergreen Shrubs and Small Trees 119 Deserts: Arid Life Zones 120 Savanna: Tropical Grasslands 121 Tropical Rain Forests: Lush Equatorial Forests 122 Vertical Zonation: The Distribution of Vegetation on Mountains 123 Aquatic Ecosystems 124 Freshwater Ecosystems 124 Case in Point The Everglades 128 Estuaries: Where Fresh Water and Salt Water Meet 129 Marine Ecosystems 130 7 Human Health and Environmental Toxicology 140 Human Health 140 Health Issues in Highly Developed Countries 141 Health Issues in Developing Countries 142 Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 142 Influenza Pandemics Past and Future 144 Environmental Pollution and Disease 144 Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification of Environmental Contaminants 145 Endocrine Disrupters 147 Determining Health Effects of Environmental Pollution 148 Identifying Toxic Substances 149 Children and Chemical Exposure 151 Decision Making and Uncertainty: Assessment of Risks 152 Risk Information as a Decision Tool 153 Ecological Risk Assessment 156 Ecological Risk Assessment and Ecotoxicology 157 Case in Point The Ocean and Human Health 158 8 The Human Population 161 The Science of Demography 161 Current and Future Population Numbers 162 Human Migration 163 Demographics of Countries 163 Demographic Stages 164 Age Structure 166 Population and Quality of Life 168 Case in Point Coping with AIDS in Africa 169 Population and Chronic Hunger 169 Economic Effects of Continued Population Growth 170 Reducing the Total Fertility Rate 170 Culture and Fertility 171 The Social and Economic Status of Women 171 Family Planning Services 173 Government Policies, Fertility, and Poverty 173 China and Mexico: Contrasting Population Growth Measures 174 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 175 9 The Urban Environment 179 Population and Urbanization 179 Characteristics of the Urban Population 180 Urbanization Trends 180 The City as an Ecosystem 183 Long-Term Study of Urban Ecosystems 184 Environmental Problems Associated with Urban Areas 185 Environmental Benefits of Urbanization 187 Urban Land-Use Planning 187 Transportation and Urban Development 188 Suburban Sprawl 189 Making Cities More Sustainable 190 Case in Point Curitiba, Brazil 192 10 Energy Consumption 196 Energy Consumption and Policy 196 Energy Consumption 197 Energy Efficiency and Conservation 199 Energy Efficiency 200 Energy Conservation 205 Electricity, Hydrogen, and Energy Storage 205 Electricity 206 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 206 Energy Storage 208 Energy Policy 210 Four Energy Policy Objectives 210 Climate Energy Policy and Climate Change 211 11 Fossil Fuels 214 Fossil Fuels 215 How Fossil Fuels Formed 215 Fossil Fuels, the Carbon Cycle, and Climate 216 Coal 216 Coal Reserves 217 Coal Mining 217 Safety Problems Associated with Coal 218 Environmental Impacts of the Mining Process 218 Environmental Impacts of Burning Coal 218 Making Coal a Cleaner Fuel 219 Coal and Carbon Dioxide Emissions 220 Oil and Natural Gas Extraction and Consumption 221 Sources and Uses of Oil and Natural Gas Resources 221 Oil and Natural Gas Extraction and Consumption 223 Environmental Impacts of Oil and Natural Gas 226 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 227 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 228 The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 229 Synfuels and Other Potential Fossil-Fuel Resources 229 Environmental Impacts of Synfuels 231 12 Renewable Energy and Nuclear Power 234 Direct Solar Energy 234 Heating Buildings and Water 235 Solar Thermal Electricity Generation 237 Photovoltaics 238 Indirect Solar Energy 239 Energy From Biomass 239 Wind Energy 240 Hydropower 242 Case in Point The Three Gorges Dam 243 Other Uses of Indirect Solar Energy 243 Other Renewable Energy Sources 244 Geothermal Energy 244 Tidal Energy 245 Nuclear Energy 246 Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy 247 Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Radioactive Waste 249 Case in Point Yucca Mountain 251 13 Water: A Limited Resource 255 The Importance of Water 255 Properties of Water 256 The Hydrologic Cycle and Our Supply of Fresh Water 256 Water Use and Resource Problems 259 Too Much Water 259 Case in Point Flood Control on the Mississippi River 260 Too Little Water 261 Water Problems in the United States and Canada 262 Surface Water 263 Groundwater 265 Global Water Problems 266 Water and Climate Change 267 Drinking-Water Problems 267 Population Growth and Water Problems 267 Sharing Water Resources Among Countries 268 Water Management 271 Providing a Sustainable Water Supply 271 Water Conservation 274 Reducing Agricultural Water Waste 274 Reducing Industrial Water Waste 275 Reducing Municipal Water Waste 275 14 Soil Resources 280 The Soil System 280 State Factors: Soil-Forming Factors 281 Soil Composition 281 Soil Horizons 283 Soil Organisms 283 Nutrient Cycling 284 Soil Properties and Major Soil Types 285 Soil Acidity 286 Major Soil Groups 286 Environmental Problems Related to Soil 288 Soil Erosion 288 Case in Point The American Dust Bowl 289 Nutrient Mineral Depletion 290 Soil Salinization 291 Desertification 291 Soil Conservation and Regeneration 292 Conservation Tillage 292 Crop Rotation 293 Contour Plowing, Strip Cropping, and Terracing 293 Preserving Soil Fertility 293 Soil Reclamation 294 Agroforestry 295 Soil Conservation Policies in the United States 296 15 Mineral Resources 299 Introduction to Minerals 299 Mineral Distribution and Formation 301 How Minerals are Found, Extracted, and Processed 301 Environmental Impacts Associated with Minerals 304 Mining and the Environment 304 Environmental Impacts of Refining Minerals 305 Case in Point Copper Basin, Tennessee 306 Restoration of Mining Lands 307 Minerals: An International Perspective 308 Worldwide Mineral Production and Consumption 308 Mineral Distribution Versus Consumption 309 Evaluating Our Mineral Supplies 309 Increasing the Supply of Minerals 310 Locating and Mining New Deposits 310 Minerals in Antarctica 310 Minerals from the Ocean 311 Advanced Mining and Processing Technologies 311 Using Substitution and Conservation to Expand Mineral Supplies 312 Finding Mineral Substitutes 312 Mineral Conservation 313 16 Biological Resources 318 Biological Diversity 318 Why We Need Organisms 319 Extinction and Species Endangerment 321 Endangered and Threatened Species 322 Where is Declining Biological Diversity the Greatest Problem? 324 Human Causes of Species Endangerment 325 Case in Point Disappearing Frogs 329 Conservation Biology 330 In Situ Conservation: Protecting Habitats 330 Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats 331 Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks 332 Conservation Organizations 334 Conservation Policies and Laws 335 Habitat Conservation Plans 336 International Conservation Policies and Laws 336 Wildlife Management 336 Management of Migratory Animals 337 Management of Aquatic Organisms 337 17 Land Resources 341 Land Use 341 World Land Use 342 Land Use in the United States 342 Wilderness, Parks, and Wildlife Refuges 344 National Parks 345 Wildlife Refuges 346 Forests 346 Forest Management 347 Deforestation 349 Forest Trends in the United States 349 Case in Point Tongass National Forest 350 Trends in Tropical Forests 351 Boreal Forests and Deforestation 353 Rangelands and Agricultural Lands 353 Rangeland Degradation and Desertification 354 Rangeland Trends in the United States 355 Agricultural Lands 355 Wetlands and Coastal Areas 356 Coastlines 357 Conservation of Land Resources 359 18 Food Resources 362 World Food Security 362 Famines 363 Maintaining Grain Stocks 363 Economics, Politics, and Food Security 364 Poverty and Food 364 Food Production 365 Sources of Food 365 The Main Types of Agriculture 366 Challenges of Producing More Crops and Livestock 368 The Effect of Domestication on Genetic Diversity 368 The Global Decline in Domesticated Plant and Animal Varieties 369 Case in Point Grow Appalachia 370 Supplements for Livestock 371 Genetic Modification 371 The Environmental Impacts of Agriculture 374 Solutions to Agricultural Problems 375 Fisheries of the World 377 Problems and Challenges for the Fishing Industry 377 Aquaculture: Fish Farming 379 19 Air Pollution 383 Types and Sources of Air Pollution 383 Major Classes of Air Pollutants 384 Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution 387 Urban Air Pollution 387 Case in Point Efforts to Reduce Ozone in Southern California 388 Effects of Air Pollution 389 Air Pollution and Human Health 390 Controlling Air Pollution in the United States 391 Controlling Air Pollutants 391 The Clean Air Act 393 Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere 394 Stratospheric Ozone Thinning 395 The Effects of Ozone Depletion 396 Facilitating the Recovery of the Ozone Layer 396 Acid Deposition 397 How Acid Deposition Develops 397 The Effects of Acid Deposition 398 Managing Acid Deposition 400 Air Pollution around the World 401 Air Pollution in Developing Countries 401 Case in Point Air Pollution in Beijing, New Delhi, and Mexico City 401 Long-Distance Transport of Air Pollution 402 Indoor Air Pollution 403 Sources and Effects of Indoor Air Pollution 403 Tobacco Smoke and Radon 404 20 Global Climate Change 409 Introduction to Climate Change 409 The Causes of Global Climate Change 410 Pollutants that Cool the Atmosphere 412 Modeling the Future Climate 413 Unpredictable and Extreme Climate Change 414 The Effects of Global Climate Change 415 Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels 415 Case in Point Impacts in Fragile Areas 416 Changes in Precipitation Patterns 417 Effects on Organisms 417 Effects on Human Health 419 Effects on Agriculture 420 International Implications of Global Climate Change 421 Links Among Global Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Acid Deposition 421 Dealing with Global Climate Change 422 Mitigation of Global Climate Change 423 Adaptation to Global Climate Change 424 International Efforts to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 424 21 Water Pollution 427 Types of Water Pollution 427 Sewage 428 Disease-Causing Agents 429 Sediment Pollution 431 Inorganic Plant and Algal Nutrients 432 Organic Compounds 432 Inorganic Chemicals 434 Radioactive Substances 435 Thermal Pollution 435 Water Quality Today 436 Water Pollution from Agriculture 437 Municipal Water Pollution 437 Industrial Wastes in Water 438 Case in Point Green Chemistry 438 Groundwater Pollution 439 Water Pollution in Other Countries 441 Improving Water Quality 442 Purification of Drinking Water 442 Municipal Sewage Treatment 444 Individual Septic Systems 445 Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems 446 Laws Controlling Water Pollution 446 Safe Drinking Water Act 446 Clean Water Act 447 Laws that Protect Groundwater 448 22 Pest Management 450 What Is a Pesticide? 450 First-Generation and Second-Generation Pesticides 451 The Major Groups of Insecticides 452 The Major Kinds of Herbicides 452 Benefits and Problems with Pesticides 452 Benefit: Disease Control 453 Benefit: Crop Protection 453 Problem: Evolution of Genetic Resistance 454 Problem: Imbalances in the Ecosystem 455 Problems: Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification 455 Problem: Mobility in the Environment 456 Risks of Pesticides to Human Health 457 Short-Term Effects of Pesticides 457 Long-Term Effects of Pesticides 457 Pesticides as Endocrine Disrupters 458 Alternatives to Pesticides 459 Using Cultivation Methods to Control Pests 459 Biological Controls 459 Pheromones and Hormones 460 Reproductive Controls 460 Genetic Controls 461 Case in Point BT, Its Potential and Problems 461 Quarantine 461 The Systems Approach: Integrated Pest Management 462 Irradiating Foods 463 Laws Controlling Pesticide Use 463 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 464 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 464 Food Quality Protection Act 464 The Manufacture and Use of Banned Pesticides 465 Importation of Food Tainted with Banned Pesticides 465 Global Ban on Persistent Organic Pollutants 465 23 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 469 Solid Waste 469 Types of Solid Waste 470 Open Dumps 470 Sanitary Landfills 470 Incineration 472 Composting 474 Waste Prevention 475 Case in Point Drinking Water on College Campuses 475 Reducing the Amount of Waste: Source Reduction 475 Reusing Products 476 Recycling Materials 477 Integrated Waste Management 479 Hazardous Waste 480 Types of Hazardous Waste 481 Case in Point Hanford Nuclear Reservation 482 Management of Hazardous Waste 483 24 Tomorrow’s World 489 Living Sustainably 489 Sustainable Living: A Plan of Action 490 Recommendation 1: Eliminate Poverty and Stabilize the Human Population 491 Recommendation 2: Protect and Restore Earth’s Resources 493 Recommendation 3: Provide Adequate Food for all People 495 Recommendation 4: Mitigate Climate Change 496 Recommendation 5: Design Sustainable Cities 497 Case in Point Durban, South Africa 498 Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices 499 The Role of Education 499 What Kind of World Do We Want? 500 Appendices 503 Glossary 516 Index I-1