Drinking Water Regulation and Health

Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi Contributors xxiii Acronyms xxvii PART I THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT AND PUBLIC HEALTH 1 1 Drinking Water and Public Health Protection 3  Daniel A. Okun 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 Water Supply for the City of Rome, 4 1.3 The Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, 5 1.4 The Great Sanitary Awakening, 6 1.5 The Emergence of Water as a Public Health Issue, 9 1.6 The Beginning of Water Treatment, 11 1.7 The Chemical Revolution, 13 1.8 The Introduction of Regulations, 14 1.9 Prelude to the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act, 17 1.10 Drinking Water in Developing Countries, 19 1.11 The Future of Public Water Supply, 21 2 Improving Waterborne Disease Surveillance 25  Floyd J. Frost, Rebecca L. Calderon and Gunther F. Craun 2.1 Introduction, 25 2.2 Background, 26 2.3 Limitations of the Current Disease Surveillance Systems, 28 2.4 Early Detection of Outbreaks, 31 2.5 Endemic Disease, 32 2.6 Applicability of Outbreak Investigations, 34 2.7 Monitoring Infection Versus Disease, 36 2.8 Improving Disease Surveillance, 38 3 Waterborne Outbreaks in the United States, 1971–2000 45  Gunther F. Craun, Rebecca L. Calderon, and Michael F. Craun 3.1 Introduction, 45 3.2 Waterborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System, 46 3.3 Waterborne Outbreak Statistics, 48 3.4 Causes of Outbreaks in Drinking Water Systems, 55 3.5 Outbreaks Associated with Recreational Waters, 61 3.6 Outbreak Trends, 65 4 History of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 71 Frederick W. Pontius 4.1 Introduction, 71 4.2 Early Development of Drinking Water Standards, 72 4.3 The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, 73 4.4 1986 SDWA Amendments, 79 4.5 1988 Lead Contamination Control Act, 80 4.6 1996 SDWA Amendments, 81 4.7 Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act, 91 4.8 Future Outlook, 95 5 SDWA: Looking to the Future 105  Diane VanDe Hei and Thomas Schaeffer 5.1 Introduction, 105 5.2 U.S. Governmental Structure, 105 5.3 How Laws Are Made, 107 5.4 Forces Shaping the SDWA and Amendments, 111 5.5 Future Amendments to the SDWA, 121 5.6 Outlook for Major Change, 0127 PART II REGULATION DEVELOPMENT 131 6 Toxicological Basis for Drinking Water Risk Assessment 133  Joyce Morrissey Donohue and Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta 6.1 Introduction, 133 6.2 Toxicological Evaluation of Drinking Water Contaminants, 133 6.3 Use of Toxicity Information in Risk Assessment, 137 6.4 Health Advisories, 143 6.5 Future Outlook, 145 7 Epidemiologic Concepts for Interpreting Findings in Studies of Drinking Water Exposures 147  Gunther F. Craun, Rebecca L. Calderon and Floyd J. Frost 7.1 Introduction, 147 7.2 What Is Epidemiology?, 149 7.3 Historical Origins, 149 7.4 Disease Models, 150 7.5 Basic Measures of Disease Frequency, 152 7.6 Types of Epidemiologic Studies, 156 7.7 Examples: Experimental, Cohort, and Case–Control Studies, 170 7.8 Future Trends in Epidemiology and Drinking Water, 178 8 Application of Risk Assessments in Crafting Drinking Water Regulations 183  Bruce A. Macler 8.1 Introduction, 183 8.2 Risk Assessment Approaches for Drinking Water Regulations, 184 8.3 Risk Mandates from the Safe Drinking Water Act, 188 8.4 Developing MCLs and Treatment Techniques, 189 8.5 Future Outlook, 195 9 ‘‘Sound’’ Science and Drinking Water Regulation 197  Frederick W. Pontius 9.1 Introduction, 197 9.2 Elements of ‘‘Sound’’ Science, 198 9.3 Peer Involvement, 206 9.4 Scientific Disagreement, 209 9.5 ‘‘Junk’’ Science, 210 9.6 Causation and Causal Inference, 211 9.7 Science and SDWA Regulations, 214 9.8 Science and the Courts, 215 9.9 Future Developments and Trends, 221 10 Benefit–Cost Analysis and Drinking Water Regulation 225  Robert S. Raucher 10.1 Introduction, 225 10.2 Benefit–Cost Analysis (BCA) Under the SDWA, 226 10.3 Historical Application of BCA, 227 10.4 USEPA Policies and Practices, 228 10.5 Comparing Benefits to Costs, 229 10.6 Measures of Risk Reduction Benefits, 233 10.7 Benefits Transfer to Drinking Water, 238 and Income Growth, 241 10.8 Uncertainty and Variability, 242 10.9 Precautionary Assumptions versus Central Tendencies, 244 10.10 Omitted or Unquantified Benefits and Costs, 246 10.11 Uncertain Costs, 247 10.12 Future Outlook, 247 11 Public Involvement in Regulation Development 251  Frederick W. Pontius 11.1 Introduction, 251 11.2 Who is the Public?, 251 11.3 Objectives Determine Involvement Level, 252 11.4 Involvement during the Rulemaking Process, 253 11.5 Federal Agency Advisory Committees, 261 11.6 Regulatory Negotiation, 266 11.7 Judicial Review, 268 11.8 USEPA’s Public Involvement Policy, 269 11.9 The Future of Public Participation, 271 PART III CONTAMINANT REGULATION AND TREATMENT 275 12 Control of Drinking Water Pathogens and Disinfection Byproducts 277  Stig E. Regli, Paul S. Berger and Thomas R. Grubbs 12.1 Introduction, 277 12.2 Control of Waterborne Pathogens Before the 1970s, 277 12.3 Control of Waterborne Pathogens and DBPs in the 1970s, 280 12.4 Control of Waterborne Pathogens and DBPs in the 1980s, 284 12.5 Control of Waterborne Pathogens and DBPs in the 1990s and Beyond, 289 12.6 A View Toward the Future, 301 13 Regulating Radionuclides in Drinking Water 307  David R. Huber 13.1 Introduction, 307 13.2 Radiation Basics, 310 13.3 SDWA Requirements for Radionuclide Standards, 312 13.4 1976 Radionuclide Regulations, 314 13.5 1991 Proposed Radionuclides Rule, 317 13.6 1996 SDWA Amendments and Rule Revisions, 318 13.7 2000 Final Radionuclides Rule, 322 13.8 Future Outlook, 336 14 Risk-Based Framework for Future Regulatory Decision-Making 339  Mark Gibson and Mike Osinsiki 14.1 Introduction, 339 14.2 SDWA Amendments of 1996, 340 14.3 Role of Third-Party Consultations in Regulatory Development, 342 14.4 Role of USEPA Programs, 344 14.5 Development of the First CCL, 347 14.6 Public Health Decisions from the 1998 CCL, 349 14.7 Development of Future CCLs, 356 14.8 Illustration of a Prototype Classification Scheme, 368 14.9 Virulence Factor–Activity Relationships (VFARs), 375 14.10 NRC Recommendations and Future Directions, 376 15 Selection of Treatment Technology for SDWA Compliance 381  Frederick W. Pontius 15.1 Introduction, 381 15.2 SDWA Requirements Affecting Technology Selection, 381 15.3 Acceptance of New Technology, 385 15.4 Advanced Treatment Technology Overview, 386 15.5 Simultaneous Compliance, 395 15.6 Process Optimization, 396 15.7 Technology Selection, 396 16 SDWA Compliance Using Point-of-Use (POU) and Point-of-Entry (POE) Treatment 403  Frederick W. Pontius, Regu P. Regunathan and Joseph F. Harrison 16.1 Introduction, 403 16.2 POU and POE Technology Benefits, 404 16.3 POU and POE Technology Limitations, 405 16.4 SDWA Requirements for POU and POE Technology, 407 16.5 Certification Programs, 408 16.6 POU and POE Technology Overview, 411 16.7 Selecting POU and POE Technologies, 417 16.8 Installation and Maintenance, 420 16.9 Monitoring, 422 16.10 Implementation Issues and Strategies, 422 16.11 Future Outlook and Trends, 427 PART IV COMPLIANCE CHALLENGES 431 17 Death of the Silent Service: Meeting Consumer Expectations 433  Elisa M. Speranza 17.1 Introduction, 433 17.2 Who Are Water Utility Customers?, 433 17.3 Public Water Suppliers as a Monopoly, 436 17.4 Where Customers Obtain Information, 436 17.5 What Customers Think and Want, 437 17.6 Gaining Customer Support, 441 17.7 Communicating with Customers, 441 17.8 Benefits of Customer Communication, 446 18 Achieving the Capacity to Comply 449  Peter E. Shanaghan and Jennifer Bielanski 18.1 Introduction, 449 18.2 Water System Capacity, 450 18.3 Assessing Water System Capacity, 452 18.4 Enhancing System Capacity, 455 18.5 Future Outlook, 461 19 Achieving Sustainable Water Systems 463  Janice A. Beecher 19.1 Introduction, 463 19.2 Sustainable Systems, 464 19.3 Sustainability and the SDWA, 468 19.4 Affordability and Sustainability, 473 19.5 Pricing Theory, 477 19.6 Rate Design, 481 19.7 Future Trends in Achieving Sustainability, 487 20 Protecting Sensitive Subpopulations 491  Jeffrey K. Griffiths 20.1 Introduction, 491 20.2 Defining Sensitive Subpopulations, 491 20.3 Sensitive Subpopulations and the SDWA, 492 20.4 Identifying Sensitive Subpopulations, 493 20.5 What Makes a Person or Population Sensitive?, 495 20.6 Which Sensitive Subpopulations Are of Concern to Water Providers?, 505 20.7 Can or Should a Water Supplier Identify Who Belongs to a Sensitive Subpopulation?, 506 20.8 Nontransient and Transient Noncommunity Systems, 506 20.9 Public Health Concepts Relevant to Sensitive Subpopulations, 507 20.10 Future Outlook, 509 21 Environmental Justice and Drinking Water Regulation 513  Frederick W. Pontius 21.1 Introduction, 513 21.2 Environmental Justice as a Movement, 513 21.3 Identifying Environmental Justice Situations, 517 21.4 Environmental Justice and Contaminant Regulation, 526 21.5 Implications for Water Utilities, 528 21.6 Future Outlook, 529 22 What Water Suppliers Need to Know about Toxic Tort Litigation 533  Kenneth A. Rubin 22.1 Introduction, 533 22.2 Basics of Toxic Torts, 534 22.3 What Plaintiffs Must Prove, 538 22.4 Key Steps in Litigation, 543 22.5 Case Histories Involving Water Suppliers, 549 22.6 Future Outlook for Tort Litigation, 552 23 Intellectual Property Laws and Water Technology 555  Linda E. B. Hansen 23.1 Introduction, 555 23.2 Property, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Patents, 555 23.3 Patent Laws, 556 23.4 Obtaining a Patent, 563 23.5 Patent Infringement, 564 23.6 Future Outlook in Intellectual Property Law, 566 24 Water System Security 567  Frederick W. Pontius 24.1 Introduction, 567 24.2 Threats to Public Water Systems, 568 24.3 SDWA Security Provisions, 570 24.4 Department of Homeland Security, 576 24.5 Future Outlook, 580 Appendixes A Summary Tables of Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories 583 USEPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water and USEPA Office of Science and Technology B 1962 U.S. Public Health Service Standards 621 C Section-by-Section Summary of the SDWA 635  Frederick W. Pontius D Text of the SDWA as Amended and Related Statutes 721  Compiled by Frederick W. Pontius E How Our Laws are Made 871  Charles W. Johnson F Enactment of a Law 923  Robert B. Dove G Listing of Drinking Water Federal Register Notices 953  Compiled by Frederick W. Pontius, P.E. H Outline of 40 CFR 141, 142, and 143 971  Compiled by Frederick W. Pontius I Example Capacity Development Tool 979  South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources J U.S. Water Industry Statistics 995  USEPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water Index 1009