Communication in Times of Trouble

Acknowledgements ix 1 Introduction 1 What Is a Crisis? 2 What Do We Mean by Crisis Communication? 4 What Distinguishes Crisis Communication? 7 What Are Best Practices? 7 Summary 9 References 10 2 Process Approach: Take a Process Approach to Crisis Communication 11 What Do We Mean by “Communication Is a Process”? 12 What Does a Process Approach Mean for Crisis? 12 What Is a Crisis Life Cycle? 14 How Can These Stages Be Used by Crisis Communicators? 16 Why Should Communicators Participate in the Policy Formation Process? 17 Summary 19 References 20 3 Preevent Planning: Engage in Preevent Planning for Crisis Communication 21 What Does Planning Involve? 21 What Is Crisis Communication Planning? 23 How Is a Plan Created? 24 How Is Risk Assessed? 25 What Is Included in a Crisis Plan? 26 Standard Elements of a Crisis Communication Plan 28 Implementing a Crisis Plan 29 Summary 30 References 31 4 Partnerships: Form Stakeholder Partnerships With Publics 33 Why Do Crisis Leaders Sometimes Avoid Communicating With Their Publics? 33 How Are Relationships With Publics Established? 34 What Is Dialog? 35 Why Do Some Agencies and Organizations Fail to Establish Dialog? 36 How Does Dialog Produce Partnerships With Publics? 37 Are There Times When Dialog Should Be Avoided? 38 What Roles Can Publics Play in Their Partnerships With Organizations and Agencies? 39 Summary 41 References 42 5 Public Concern: Listen to and Acknowledge Concerns of Publics 45 How Do Publics Respond to Risks? 46 What Communication Challenges Do Hazards Create? 46 What Communication Challenges Does Outrage Create? 49 How Should Agencies and Organizations Acknowledge the Concerns of Publics? 50 How Do Organizations and Agencies Anticipate Which Issues Are Likely to Produce Public Outrage? 51 How Can Organizations Communicate to Prevent and Manage Outrage? 52 Summary 54 References 55 6 Honesty: Communication With Honesty, Frankness, and Openness 57 Why Is It So Important to Be Honest? 58 What Does It Really Mean to Be Honest? 60 What Are Some Challenges to Being Honest During a Crisis? 62 How Is Openness Achieved During a Crisis? 64 Summary 66 References 67 7 Collaboration: Collaborate and Coordinate With Credible Sources 69 Who Are the Credible Partners for an Organization? 70 What Do Collaboration and Coordination Mean? 72 Why Are Collaboration and Coordination So Important? 75 How Can an Organization Create Collaboration and Coordination? 76 It Is Possible to Coordinate and Cooperate With Hostile Groups? 76 Summary 77 References 78 8 Media Access: Meet the Needs of the Media and Remain Accessible 79 Why Is Media Access Important? 80 What Does Accessibility Mean? 82 How Does an Organization Maintain Accessibility? 83 What Happens If Organizations Are Not Open During a Crisis? 85 Will the Media Tell a Negative Story Regardless of the Facts? 86 Summary 86 References 87 9 Compassion: Communicate With Compassion 89 What Is a Compassionate Response to Crisis? 90 Who Is the Best Organizational Spokesperson for Expressing Compassion? 92 When Is Expressing Compassion Most Important? 93 Should an Organization Express Compassion If Blame Is Uncertain? 94 How Should an Organization Express Compassion If Blame Is Certain? 94 How Should Spokespersons Express Compassion Through Social Media? 95 What Role Does Culture Play in the Expression of Compassion? 96 Summary 97 References 98 10 Uncertainty: Accept Uncertainty and Ambiguity 101 What Causes Uncertainty for Publics? 101 How Do Publics Respond to Uncertainty? 103 What Kind of Information Do Publics Seek to Reduce Their Uncertainty? 104 How Can Organizations Avoid Overreassuring Their Publics? 105 What Are Some Other Ways to Manage Uncertainty? 106 What Are the Ethical Standards for Managing Uncertainty? 108 Summary 110 References 111 11 Empowerment: Communicate Messages of Empowerment 113 How Can Messages Empower Publics? 113 What Are the Components of an Empowering Message? 114 How Can Risk and Crisis Communicators Help Their Publics Internalize the Risk? 114 How Should Messages Be Distributed to Publics? 116 How Much Explanation of the Crisis Is Necessary? 117 How Should Recommendations for Self‐Protective Actions Be Communicated? 118 What If Publics Are Given Competing Recommendations for Empowerment? 120 What Is the Role of Empowering Messages Outside the Acute Phase of Crisis? 121 Summary 122 References 123 12 Conclusion: Implementing the Best Practices 125 Are Crises Really Occurring More Often and Are They Getting Worse? 126 How Can an Organization Repair Its Damaged Image? 128 Are There Ever Positive Outcomes to a Crisis? 130 What Are the Challenges to Implementing the Best Practices? 132 How Can the Best Practices Approach to a Crisis Be Used? 133 Summary 134 References 135 Index 137