Business Communication, Australia and New Zealand

Chapter 1 Communication today 1 One communication, two communications 2 Priestley’s paradox 4 Communication: models for understanding 5 Models 1 and 2: Lasswell, and Shannon and Weaver 5 Models 3, 4 and 5: Berlo, Lievrouw/Finn and Foulger 6 Model 6: an expanded model of communication 8 Context 17 Message termination and failure 17 Time and simultaneity 17 Communication: always a good thing? 17 Communication and ethics 18 Ethics and rationalisation 18 Summary 21 Key terms 21 Review questions 21 Applied activities 22 References 22 Acknowledgements 25 Chapter 2 Document design and graphic communication 27 Document and information design: an introduction 28 Some definitions 28 Information design and readability 28 Designing information: how do you do it? 29 Structure and analysis 31 Layout: how does it look? 33 Types and fonts 34 White space 36 The shape of the page 36 Paragraphs, lists, columns 37 Colour 37 Document design and structure 37 Layout/document design: from before to after 39 Every picture tells a story: graphic communication 42 Visuals: what they are and how to use them 42 Overview: which graphic do I use for which situation? 51 Data and the scale of things: the use and abuse of graphic communication 53 Summary 54 Key terms 54 Review questions 54 Applied activities 55 References 55 Acknowledgements 56 Chapter 3 Doing and using research 57 Research skills and the knowledge-based society 58 The research process 58 Researching sources: primary, secondary and tertiary sources 59 Organising information 61 Using catalogues 63 Electronic databases 65 The internet 66 Note taking and tactile thinking 68 Using notetaking and reference management software 69 Referring to secondary and tertiary sources 69 Referencing systems and styles 69 May we quote you? Citing, quoting, paraphrasing and plagiarising 74 Legitimate quotation: fair dealing 75 Illegitimate quotation: plagiarising 76 Illegitimate quotation again: ‘biblio-dumping’ 76 Sources: success and failure 77 Getting the facts: primary sources of data 77 Primary data 77 Types of questions 78 Collating data 80 Testing your survey: don’t open the show without a rehearsal 80 Introducing the survey 80 Ensure that your sampling is accurate 81 Summary 83 Key terms 83 Review questions 83 Applied activities 84 References 84 Acknowledgements 84 Chapter 4 Writing letters and emails 85 Letters and emails: when, why and how 86 The eight Cs of written communication 86 Writing emails 86 Writing email: what structure? 87 Layout and appearance 87 Formatting emails for clarity and readability 89 Attachments and links 89 Identity details 89 Email management 90 Email etiquette 90 Email: problems and opportunities 91 Letters 92 Approaches to writing business letters 92 The elements of a letter 93 Letter formats 98 Letters and emails: the message 99 Routine messages 99 The nonroutine: giving the news 99 Good news correspondence 99 Good news: using the direct approach 99 Bringing good news: what not to do 100 Communicating bad news 102 Letting them down gently: the indirect approach 103 If you want their business, don’t give them the business 103 Being the bearer of bad news: how to do it well 104 Buffers and sandwiches 104 The meat of the sandwich: telling the bad news 106 Buffers: creating silver linings 108 Writing technique and the bigger picture: silver linings and top brass 109 Bad news: an overview 109 Persuasive correspondence 114 Structuring persuasive documents: the AIDA sequence 115 Message plus 116 Collection, request and order letters 117 Collection letters 117 Request letters 118 Placing orders 120 Summary 121 Key terms 121 Review questions 121 Applied activities 121 References 122 Chapter 5 Reports and proposals 123 So you’ve got to write a report … 124 The big leap: writing essays and writing reports 126 What are reports for? 127 Information and persuasion: getting the mix right 128 Who are reports for? Know your audience 129 What is involved in preparing a report? A production model 130 Commissioning the report 130 Individual or team? 131 Plan scope, outline, tasks, scheduling 131 Primary, secondary and tertiary sources of data 131 Redefine scope, outline, tasks, scheduling 132 Design graphics 132 Draft, set aside, redraft 132 Edit, produce, deliver 132 Evaluate 133 Analytical reports 133 Good news and bad news: structure and the politics of persuasion 133 Title 134 Contents page 134 List of illustrations 134 Summary/synopsis/abstract 135 Introduction 135 Discussion 135 Avoiding bias and other problems 136 Conclusions 136 Recommendations 137 References, bibliography, endnotes 137 Appendices or attachments 137 Glossary, list of abbreviations and index 137 Publishing and distributing your report 139 Formatting for print and digital reports 139 Letter/memorandum/email of transmittal 140 A sample analytical report 140 Proposals 156 How to do it: writing a proposal 158 Writing tenders 158 Summary 161 Key terms 161 Review questions 161 Applied activities 161 References 162 Acknowledgements 162 Chapter 6 Online writing 163 The offline world goes online 164 Online writing: mosaic and 3D 164 Scanning 166 Writing for the web 167 Websites 167 You as a web writer 167 Who are the readers? 168 Structure your text for readers who scan 169 Meta-tagging 170 Writing for blogs 171 Writing for social media 172 Using search engine optimisation 172 Copyright and fair use in online writing 172 Summary 174 Key terms 174 Review questions 174 Applied activities 174 References 175 Chapter 7 Academic writing: the essay 177 Essay writing 178 What makes a good or bad essay? 178 Essays: form and content 178 Essay method 181 Fact versus opinion: just what is it you have to say? 182 Critical analysis 182 Bias and balance 1 183 Synthesis and originality 183 Bias and balance 2: the other side 184 Sources and proofs 184 Essay structure 185 Thesis statements, summaries and drafting 186 Topic sentences 186 Keeping on track 187 Style and technique 187 Time and technique 188 Say what you mean, and mean what you say 188 You, the author 189 Academic writing versus workplace writing: match your style to your audience 190 Layout factors 191 Putting it together 191 Essay writing: dos and don’ts 192 Summary 193 Key terms 193 Review questions 193 Applied activities 194 References 194 Acknowledgements 194 Chapter 8 Nonverbal communication 195 What is nonverbal communication? 196 Body structure and deep behaviour: the medium is the message? 197 Head movements 198 Facial expressions 198 Eyes 199 Voice: it ain’t what you say, but the way that you say it 200 Smell 201 Gesture 202 Posture 203 Body movement 203 Touching 203 Clothing and adornment 204 Personal space/territoriality 206 Environment 207 Time and cultural context 207 Applying the model 208 Summary 211 Key terms 211 Review questions 211 Applied activities 211 References 212 Acknowledgements 215 Chapter 9 Interpersonal skills 1: emotional intelligence, self-talk, assertiveness and the cooperative principle 217 Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills: enlightenment, psychobabble or somewhere in between? 218 Emotional intelligence (and other intelligences) 218 Intelligence or competence? 218 Incorporating emotional intelligence 219 Emotional intelligence and artificial intelligence 220 Intrapersonal communication: self-talk 222 An intrapersonal–interpersonal connection? 225 Assertiveness 226 Assertiveness plus 227 Passive-aggressive: a fifth style of behaviour? 227 Assessing your assertiveness: behaviour patterns 228 Assertiveness: some verbal skills 229 1. Say no 229 2. Dismiss and redirect 230 3. Questioning to prompt awareness 230 4. Fogging 230 5. Forcing a choice 230 6. Broken record 231 7. Ask for specifics 231 8. Workable compromise 232 9. Threats 232 Verbal skills applied: a scenario 232 Assertiveness: from theory to practice 233 Limitations of assertiveness 233 Grice: the cooperative principle 234 Summary 235 Key terms 235 Review questions 235 Applied activities 235 References 236 Chapter 10 Interpersonal skills 2: listening, questioning, feedback, the Johari window and impression management 239 Who’s listening? 240 Listening: a vital workplace skill 242 Listening, power and gender 242 Listening and nonverbal communication 242 Listening: developing our skills 245 The right to remain silent 245 Barriers to effective listening 246 Actually being interested in the other person: key to effective listening 247 Active and reflective listening 248 Effective questioning 249 Feedback 252 Feedback: what does it mean, and how might it work? 252 Why feedback? 253 Performance and potential 253 The feedback sequence: a verbal tool 253 Using the feedback sequence assertively (and not so assertively) 255 Receiving feedback 258 The Johari window 259 Feedback and disclosure 260 Different windows: bulls, confessors and others 260 Windows: individual, group, organisational 261 Impression management 261 Impression management and getting a job 262 Impression management and deceptive organisations 264 Summary 266 Key terms 266 Review questions 266 Applied activities 267 References 267 Acknowledgements 268 Chapter 11 Oral communication 269 Speaking out and finding your tongue 270 Forms of oral communication 270 Different types of oral communication discourse 271 Spoken words and written words 272 Audiences: targets for your message 274 Persuading your audience: a power map approach 274 Analysing and working with problem audiences and audience members 276 Planning and structuring: what is your message? 278 Time planning 278 Content planning 278 Practice makes perfect: the value of rehearsal 280 ‘You’re on now!’ — managing your stress 282 Nonverbal communication 284 ‘Do I really look/sound like that?’ Feedback on performance 284 Speaking: a two-way process 284 ‘Good’ and ‘bad’ nonverbal communication 285 Body language meets content: you are a speaker, not a reader 288 Using your voice 289 Articulateness and articulation: the hard work of speaking 289 Using audiovisual aids 292 The delivery: getting feedback on performance 295 Summary 298 Key terms 298 Review questions 298 Applied activities 298 References 299 Chapter 12 Argument: logic, persuasion and influence 301 Arguing about argument 302 The structure of arguments 302 Logic and argument 303 Inductive and deductive logic 303 Other tools of logic 304 Toulmin’s model of argumentation 306 Fallacies and non-fallacies (ethical argument tools) 307 Is logic enough? 312 Persuasion 312 The message sender 313 The message itself 314 Sending the message 317 Foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face 317 Central versus peripheral processing 317 Persuasion–propaganda sequences 318 The message recipient 318 Maslow’s model 318 Other motivators 319 The message recipient 320 Obedience, rationalising and true believers 321 Responses to the message 322 Influence 322 Principles of influence 322 Tactics of influence 323 Summary 325 Key terms 325 Review questions 326 Applied activities 326 References 326 Acknowledgements 327 Chapter 13 Negotiation skills 329 What is negotiation? 330 Winning and losing: games and pies 330 ‘Win–win’: not just a cliché 332 WATNA, BATNA and Plan Bs 332 Avoidance 334 Choosing approaches 334 Research or sniffing around 335 Goals 335 Positions, fallbacks and bottom lines 335 Concessions 336 Positions versus interests 338 Investing time in uncovering interests 340 Territory and negotiation 341 Our place: what’s good 342 Our place: what’s not so good 343 Their place: what’s good 343 Their place: what’s not so good 344 Another place: what’s good 344 Another place: what’s not so good 344 Time and negotiation 345 Publics and negotiation 345 Stress and negotiation 345 Packaging and negotiation 345 Choosing people 346 Choosing tools 347 Nonverbal sensitivity 347 Listening and questioning skills 347 Persuasive skills 348 Signalling skills 348 Cultural and gender sensitivity 350 Communication channels 350 Negotiation styles 350 Strategies and tactics 353 Planning 355 Role-play: be smart, not shy or cynical 356 Agreement 356 Confirming it 357 Negotiation: not a line but a circle 357 Summary 358 Key terms 358 Review questions 358 Applied activities 359 References 359 Acknowledgements 361 Chapter 14 Conflict management 363 Conflict: not always a bad thing 364 Resolving and managing conflict 365 What causes conflict? 365 Diagnosing conflict 366 Conflict-handling styles 368 The conflict spiral 369 Challenging the spiral 371 Intrapersonal and role conflict: struggles with ourselves 372 Conflict in organisations 374 Approaches to managing conflict 376 Negotiation 376 Interpersonal skills 376 Cultural and gender differences 376 Group dynamics 376 Contact and communication 377 Superordinate goals 377 Tit for tat 377 De-escalation thresholds 378 Apology 378 Forgiveness 378 Praise 378 Sacrifice 379 New resources 379 Decoupling and buffering 379 Formal authority 379 Planning 379 Scale 379 Be precise — say what you mean 380 Stalemates 380 Compromise 381 Mediation 381 Conflict creation 382 Summary 383 Key terms 383 Review questions 383 Applied activities 384 References 385 Chapter 15 Intercultural communication 387 Culture and cultures — some definitions 388 Intercultural communication: an overview 389 Acculturation: coming to terms with ‘the other’ 390 The cultural intelligence model 393 Which comes first? Culture or economics? 393 Hofstede’s model of culture 394 Limitations of Hofstede’s model 397 House’s model of cultures 398 GLOBE and communication 401 Hall’s context model 402 Context, understanding and misunderstanding 404 Diverse planet, diverse nation, diverse organisation? 405 Summary 409 Key terms 409 Review questions 409 Applied activities 410 References 410 Acknowledgements 412 Chapter 16 Organisational communication 413 Organisations: systems of communication effectiveness and communication breakdown 414 What is organisational communication? 414 Communication channels 415 Structures: organisational design 416 Communication flows 416 What value does good organisational communication have? 417 Flat versus tall organisations 418 Centralised versus decentralised organisations 419 Organic versus mechanistic organisations 421 Networking: group process and interpersonal strategies 422 Virtual organisations 422 Network roles 422 Networkers 423 The informal organisation: I heard it through the grapevine 425 Organisational culture and communication 428 Bad culture 1: silos 430 Bad culture 2: the culture of silence 432 Communication and knowledge management 432 Summary 435 Key terms 435 Review questions 436 Applied activities 436 References 436 Chapter 17 Public communication 441 Context of public relations communication 442 What do public relations practitioners actually do? 444 Who are public relations practitioners communicating with? 445 Public relations campaigns 446 Situation analysis 446 Goals and objectives 447 Research 447 Communication strategy 448 Budget, results and evaluation 449 Public communication documents 449 Media releases 449 Backgrounders 452 Position papers 452 Fact sheets 453 Profiles 453 Media kits 453 Crisis communication 454 Issue definition 454 Environmental scanning and crisis control 455 Transparency and communication 455 Communicating in a crisis 456 Communication language 456 Concise language 457 Clear language 458 Cool language 458 Concrete language 459 Concerned language 459 Feeding back: from crisis tactics to organisational strategy 460 Summary 461 Key terms 461 Review questions 462 Applied activities 462 References 462 Acknowledgements 463 Chapter 18 Team communication 465 Groups, teams and leaders 466 Group dynamics: how do groups work? 466 Group membership 467 Group versus individual performance 469 Synergy and social loafing 469 Roles people play 470 Norms 477 Groupthink — where you least expect it? 480 Stages of group development 483 Group or team? 484 Teams: strengths and weaknesses 485 Teams: the good news 485 Teams: the bad news 486 Virtual teams 488 Overcoming communication challenges 488 Sharing information 489 Coordinating work 489 Creativity and collaboration 489 Building connection, shared culture and trust 490 Communicating with others in the group/team 492 Summary 493 Key terms 493 Review questions 494 Applied activities 494 References 494 Chapter 19 Communicating in meetings 499 Meetings: the good news and the bad news 500 Meetings: how do they work? 500 Meetings: structure versus power 502 Meeting structure 503 Meetings: making them happen 506 The chairperson 506 The secretary or note-taker 507 Agendas and minutes 508 Questions that need to be asked about meetings 511 Meeting decision making and problem solving 513 Support of individual or leader 513 Voting 514 Consensus 516 Brainstorming 517 Delphi 518 Nominal group technique 519 Improved nominal group technique 520 Virtual meetings 522 Virtual meetings: the upside 523 Virtual meetings: the downside 524 Getting the most out of meetings: surviving and flourishing as a participant 525 Summary 527 Key terms 527 Review questions 527 Applied activities 528 References 528 Acknowledgements 530 Chapter 20 Employment communication 531 Employment: the bigger picture 532 Job takers and job makers 532 Career paths 532 Where are the jobs? 532 What do employers really want? 533 How to prepare for the job market 534 Become more flexible 534 Become more organised 535 Think big and think small 535 Become a job researcher 535 Become a networker 536 Build a personal brand 537 Build a skills–knowledge–experience mix 537 Putting it all together 539 Job application evaluation 539 The document mix 540 References 547 Transcripts and qualifications 548 Job seeking: the funny side 549 Readers: human and machine 550 Applicant tracking system software 550 How to beat the robot readers of your résumé 551 Cheating on your résumé or not? 552 Six seconds — is this the average time a recruiter spends looking at your résumé? 554 The interview process 554 Preparing for the interview 554 The nature of interviews 554 Questioning techniques 555 The other side of the table 558 Testing, testing assessment of applicants 558 Summary 560 Key terms 560 Review questions 560 Applied activities 561 References 561 Acknowledgements 563 Index 565