Chemical Reactions and Chemical Reactors

1. Reactions and Reaction Rates 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 The Role of Chemical Reactions 1 1.1.2 Chemical Kinetics 2 1.1.3 Chemical Reactors 2 1.2 Stoichiometric Notation 3 1.3 Extent of Reaction and the Law of Definite Proportions 4 1.3.1 Stoichiometric Notation—Multiple Reactions 6 1.4 Definitions of Reaction Rate 8 1.4.1 Species-Dependent Definition 8 1.4.1.1 Single Fluid Phase 9 1.4.1.2 Multiple Phases 9 Heterogeneous Catalysis 9 Other Cases 10 1.4.1.3 Relationship between Reaction Rates of Various Species (Single Reaction) 10 1.4.1.4 Multiple Reactions 11 1.4.2 Species-Independent Definition 11 Summary of Important Concepts 12 Problems 12 2. Reaction Rates—Some Generalizations 16 2.1 Rate Equations 16 2.2 Five Generalizations 17 2.3 An Important Exception 33 Summary of Important Concepts 33 Problems 33 3. Ideal Reactors 36 3.1 Generalized Material Balance 36 3.2 Ideal Batch Reactor 38 3.3 Continuous Reactors 43 3.3.1 Ideal Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR) 45 3.3.2 Ideal Continuous Plug-Flow Reactor (PFR) 49 3.3.2.1 The Easy Way—Choose a Different Control Volume 51 3.3.2.2 The Hard Way—Do the Triple Integration 54 3.4 Graphical Interpretation of the Design Equations 54 Summary of Important Concepts 57 Problems 57 Appendix 3 Summary of Design Equations 60 4. Sizing and Analysis of Ideal Reactors 63 4.1 Homogeneous Reactions 63 4.1.1 Batch Reactors 63 4.1.1.1 Jumping Right In 63 4.1.1.2 General Discussion: Constant-Volume Systems 68 Describing the Progress of a Reaction 68 Solving the Design Equation 71 4.1.1.3 General Discussion: Variable-Volume Systems 74 4.1.2 Continuous Reactors 77 4.1.2.1 Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors (CSTRs) 78 Constant-Density Systems 78 Variable-Density (Variable-Volume) Systems 80 4.1.2.2 Plug-Flow Reactors 82 Constant-Density (Constant-Volume) Systems 82 Variable-Density (Variable-Volume) Systems 84 4.1.2.3 Graphical Solution of the CSTR Design Equation 86 4.1.2.4 Biochemical Engineering Nomenclature 90 4.2 Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactions (Introduction to Transport Effects) 91 4.3 Systems of Continuous Reactors 97 4.3.1 Reactors in Series 98 4.3.1.1 CSTRs in Series 98 4.3.1.2 PFRs in Series 103 4.3.1.3 PFRs and CSTRs in Series 103 4.3.2 Reactors in Parallel 107 4.3.2.1 CSTRs in Parallel 107 4.3.2.2 PFRs in Parallel 109 4.3.3 Generalizations 110 4.4 Recycle 111 Summary of Important Concepts 114 Problems 114 Appendix 4 Solution to Example 4-10: Three Equal-Volume CSTRs in Series 122 5. Reaction Rate Fundamentals (Chemical Kinetics) 123 5.1 Elementary Reactions 123 5.1.1 Significance 123 5.1.2 Definition 125 5.1.3 Screening Criteria 126 5.2 Sequences of Elementary Reactions 129 5.2.1 Open Sequences 130 5.2.2 Closed Sequences 130 5.3 The Steady-State Approximation (SSA) 131 5.4 Use of the Steady-State Approximation 133 5.4.1 Kinetics and Mechanism 136 5.4.2 The Long-Chain Approximation 137 5.5 Closed Sequences with a Catalyst 138 5.6 The Rate-Limiting Step (RLS) Approximation 140 5.6.1 Vector Representation 141 5.6.2 Use of the RLS Approximation 142 5.6.3 Physical Interpretation of the Rate Equation 143 5.6.4 Irreversibility 145 5.7 Closing Comments 147 Summary of Important Concepts 147 Problems 148 6. Analysis and Correlation of Kinetic Data 154 6.1 Experimental Data from Ideal Reactors 154 6.1.1 Stirred-Tank Reactors (CSTRs) 155 6.1.2 Plug-Flow Reactors 156 6.1.2.1 Differential Plug-Flow Reactors 156 6.1.2.2 Integral Plug-Flow Reactors 157 6.1.3 Batch Reactors 158 6.1.4 Differentiation of Data: An Illustration 159 6.2 The Differential Method of Data Analysis 162 6.2.1 Rate Equations Containing Only One Concentration 162 6.2.1.1 Testing a Rate Equation 162 6.2.1.2 Linearization of Langmuir–Hinshelwood/Michaelis–Menten Rate Equations 165 6.2.2 Rate Equations Containing More Than One Concentration 166 6.2.3 Testing the Arrhenius Relationship 169 6.2.4 Nonlinear Regression 171 6.3 The Integral Method of Data Analysis 173 6.3.1 Using the Integral Method 173 6.3.2 Linearization 176 6.3.3 Comparison of Methods for Data Analysis 177 6.4 Elementary Statistical Methods 178 6.4.1 Fructose Isomerization 178 6.4.1.1 First Hypothesis: First-Order Rate Equation 179 Residual Plots 179 Parity Plots 180 6.4.1.2 Second Hypothesis: Michaelis–Menten Rate Equation 181 Constants in the Rate Equation: Error Analysis 184 Non-Linear Least Squares 186 6.4.2 Rate Equations Containing More Than One Concentration (Reprise) 186 Summary of Important Concepts 187 Problems 188 Appendix 6-A Nonlinear Regression for AIBN Decomposition 197 Appendix 6-B Nonlinear Regression for AIBN Decomposition 198 Appendix 6-C Analysis of Michaelis–Menten Rate Equation via Lineweaver–Burke Plot Basic Calculations 199 7. Multiple Reactions 201 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield 203 7.3 Classification of Reactions 208 7.3.1 Parallel Reactions 208 7.3.2 Independent Reactions 208 7.3.3 Series (Consecutive) Reactions 209 7.3.4 Mixed Series and Parallel Reactions 209 7.4 Reactor Design and Analysis 211 7.4.1 Overview 211 7.4.2 Series (Consecutive) Reactions 212 7.4.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 212 7.4.2.2 Time-Independent Analysis 214 7.4.2.3 Quantitative Analysis 215 7.4.2.4 Series Reactions in a CSTR 218 Material Balance on A 219 Material Balance on R 219 7.4.3 Parallel and Independent Reactions 220 7.4.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 220 Effect of Temperature 221 Effect of Reactant Concentrations 222 7.4.3.2 Quantitative Analysis 224 7.4.4 Mixed Series/Parallel Reactions 230 7.4.4.1 Qualitative Analysis 230 7.4.4.2 Quantitative Analysis 231 Summary of Important Concepts 232 Problems 232 Appendix 7-A Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations 241 7-A.1 Single, First-Order Ordinary Differential Equation 241 7-A.2 Simultaneous, First-Order, Ordinary Differential Equations 245 8. Use of the Energy Balance in Reactor Sizing and Analysis 251 8.1 Introduction 251 8.2 Macroscopic Energy Balances 252 8.2.1 Generalized Macroscopic Energy Balance 252 8.2.1.1 Single Reactors 252 8.2.1.2 Reactors in Series 254 8.2.2 Macroscopic Energy Balance for Flow Reactors (PFRs and CSTRs) 255 8.2.3 Macroscopic Energy Balance for Batch Reactors 255 8.3 Isothermal Reactors 257 8.4 Adiabatic Reactors 261 8.4.1 Exothermic Reactions 261 8.4.2 Endothermic Reactions 262 8.4.3 Adiabatic Temperature Change 264 8.4.4 Graphical Analysis of Equilibrium-Limited Adiabatic Reactors 266 8.4.5 Kinetically Limited Adiabatic Reactors (Batch and Plug Flow) 268 8.5 Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors (General Treatment) 271 8.5.1 Simultaneous Solution of the Design Equation and the Energy Balance 272 8.5.2 Multiple Steady States 276 8.5.3 Reactor Stability 277 8.5.4 Blowout and Hysteresis 279 8.5.4.1 Blowout 279 Extension 281 Discussion 282 8.5.4.2 Feed-Temperature Hysteresis 282 8.6 Nonisothermal, Nonadiabatic Batch, and Plug-Flow Reactors 284 8.6.1 General Remarks 284 8.6.2 Nonadiabatic Batch Reactors 284 8.7 Feed/Product (F/P) Heat Exchangers 285 8.7.1 Qualitative Considerations 285 8.7.2 Quantitative Analysis 286 8.7.2.1 Energy Balance—Reactor 288 8.7.2.2 Design Equation 288 8.7.2.3 Energy Balance—F/P Heat Exchanger 289 8.7.2.4 Overall Solution 291 8.7.2.5 Adjusting the Outlet Conversion 291 8.7.2.6 Multiple Steady States 292 8.8 Concluding Remarks 294 Summary of Important Concepts 295 Problems 296 Appendix 8-A Numerical Solution to Equation (8-26) 302 Appendix 8-B Calculation of G(T) and R(T) for ‘‘Blowout’’ Example 304 9. Heterogeneous Catalysis Revisited 305 9.1 Introduction 305 9.2 The Structure of Heterogeneous Catalysts 306 9.2.1 Overview 306 9.2.2 Characterization of Catalyst Structure 310 9.2.2.1 Basic Definitions 310 9.2.2.2 Model of Catalyst Structure 311 9.3 Internal Transport 311 9.3.1 General Approach—Single Reaction 311 9.3.2 An Illustration: First-Order, Irreversible Reaction in an Isothermal,Spherical Catalyst Particle 314 9.3.3 Extension to Other Reaction Orders and Particle Geometries 315 9.3.4 The Effective Diffusion Coefficient 318 9.3.4.1 Overview 318 9.3.4.2 Mechanisms of Diffusion 319 Configurational (Restricted) Diffusion 319 Knudsen Diffusion (Gases) 320 Bulk (Molecular) Diffusion 321 The Transition Region 323 Concentration Dependence 323 9.3.4.3 The Effect of Pore Size 325 Narrow Pore-Size Distribution 325 Broad Pore-Size Distribution 326 9.3.5 Use of the Effectiveness Factor in Reactor Design and Analysis 326 9.3.6 Diagnosing Internal Transport Limitations in Experimental Studies 328 9.3.6.1 Disguised Kinetics 328 Effect of Concentration 329 Effect of Temperature 329 Effect of Particle Size 330 9.3.6.2 The Weisz Modulus 331 9.3.6.3 Diagnostic Experiments 333 9.3.7 Internal Temperature Gradients 335 9.3.8 Reaction Selectivity 340 9.3.8.1 Parallel Reactions 340 9.3.8.2 Independent Reactions 342 9.3.8.3 Series Reactions 344 9.4 External Transport 346 9.4.1 General Analysis—Single Reaction 346 9.4.1.1 Quantitative Descriptions of Mass and Heat Transport 347 Mass Transfer 347 Heat Transfer 347 9.4.1.2 First-Order, Reaction in an Isothermal Catalyst Particle—The Concept of a Controlling Step 348 hkvlc=kc _ 1 349 hkvlc=kc _ 1 350 9.4.1.3 Effect of Temperature 353 9.4.1.4 Temperature Difference Between Bulk Fluid and Catalyst Surface 354 9.4.2 Diagnostic Experiments 356 9.4.2.1 Fixed-Bed Reactor 357 9.4.2.2 Other Reactors 361 9.4.3 Calculations of External Transport 362 9.4.3.1 Mass-Transfer Coefficients 362 9.4.3.2 Different Definitions of the Mass-Transfer Coefficient 365 9.4.3.3 Use of Correlations 366 9.4.4 Reaction Selectivity 368 9.5 Catalyst Design—Some Final Thoughts 368 Summary of Important Concepts 369 Problems 369 Appendix 9-A Solution to Equation (9-4c) 376 10. ‘Nonideal’ Reactors 378 10.1 What Can Make a Reactor ‘‘Nonideal’’? 378 10.1.1 What Makes PFRs and CSTRs ‘‘Ideal’’? 378 10.1.2 Nonideal Reactors: Some Examples 379 10.1.2.1 Tubular Reactor with Bypassing 379 10.1.2.2 Stirred Reactor with Incomplete Mixing 380 10.1.2.3 Laminar Flow Tubular Reactor (LFTR) 380 10.2 Diagnosing and Characterizing Nonideal Flow 381 10.2.1 Tracer Response Techniques 381 10.2.2 Tracer Response Curves for Ideal Reactors (Qualitative Discussion) 383 10.2.2.1 Ideal Plug-How Reactor 383 10.2.2.2 Ideal Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor 384 10.2.3 Tracer Response Curves for Nonideal Reactors 385 10.2.3.1 Laminar Flow Tubular Reactor 385 10.2.3.2 Tubular Reactor with Bypassing 385 10.2.3.3 Stirred Reactor with Incomplete Mixing 386 10.3 Residence Time Distributions 387 10.3.1 The Exit-Age Distribution Function, E(t) 387 10.3.2 Obtaining the Exit-Age Distribution from Tracer Response Curves 389 10.3.3 Other Residence Time Distribution Functions 391 10.3.3.1 Cumulative Exit-Age Distribution Function, F(t) 391 10.3.3.2 Relationship between F(t) and E(t) 392 10.3.3.3 Internal-Age Distribution Function, I(t) 392 10.3.4 Residence Time Distributions for Ideal Reactors 393 10.3.4.1 Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor 393 10.3.4.2 Ideal Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor 395 10.4 Estimating Reactor Performance from the Exit-Age Distribution—The Macrofluid Model 397 10.4.1 The Macrofluid Model 397 10.4.2 Predicting Reactor Behavior with the Macrofluid Model 398 10.4.3 Using the Macrofluid Model to Calculate Limits of Performance 403 10.5 Other Models for Nonideal Reactors 404 10.5.1 Moments of Residence Time Distributions 404 10.5.1.1 Definitions 404 10.5.1.2 The First Moment of E(t) 405 Average Residence Time 405 Reactor Diagnosis 406 10.5.1.3 The Second Moment of E(t)—Mixing 407 10.5.1.4 Moments for Vessels in Series 408 10.5.2 The Dispersion Model 412 10.5.2.1 Overview 412 10.5.2.2 The Reaction Rate Term 413 Homogeneous Reaction 413 Heterogeneous Catalytic Reaction 415 10.5.2.3 Solutions to the Dispersion Model 415 Rigorous 415 Approximate (Small Values of D/uL) 417 10.5.2.4 The Dispersion Number 417 Estimating D/uL from Correlations 417 Criterion for Negligible Dispersion 419 Measurement of D/uL 420 10.5.2.5 The Dispersion Model—Some Final Comments 422 10.5.3 CSTRs-In-Series (CIS) Model 422 10.5.3.1 Overview 422 10.5.3.2 Determining the Value of ‘‘N’’ 423 10.5.3.3 Calculating Reactor Performance 424 10.5.4 Compartment Models 426 10.5.4.1 Overview 426 10.5.4.2 Compartment Models Based on CSTRs and PFRs 427 Reactors in Parallel 427 Reactors in Series 429 10.5.4.3 Well-Mixed Stagnant Zones 431 10.6 Concluding Remarks 434 Summary of Important Concepts 435 Problems 435 Nomenclature 440 Index 446