Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Preface xvii Prologue xix Part I Transport Phenomena 1 1 Mass Balances 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Theory 5 1.3 Additional Material 9 Reference 10 2 Energy Balances 11 2.1 Definitions 11 2.2 The General Energy Balance 12 2.3 Applications of the General Energy Balance 13 2.3.1 Pump 13 2.3.2 Air Oxidation of Cumene 14 2.4 The Mechanical Energy Equation 17 2.5 Applications of the Mechanical Energy Balance 18 References 22 3 Viscosity 23 3.1 Definition 23 3.2 Newtonian Fluids 25 3.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids 25 3.3.1 The Viscosity is a Function of the Temperature and the Shear Rate 25 3.3.2 The Viscosity is a Function of Time 28 3.4 Viscoelasticity 29 3.5 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids 29 3.5.1 Gases 29 3.5.2 Liquids 30 References 32 4 Laminar Flow 33 4.1 Steady-state Flow Through a Circular Tube 33 4.2 Rotational Viscosimeters 37 4.3 Additional Remarks 39 5 Turbulent Flow 41 5.1 Velocity Distribution 41 5.2 The Reynolds Number 42 5.3 Pressure Drop in Horizontal Conduits 42 5.4 Pressure Drop in Tube Systems 45 5.5 Flow Around Obstacles 47 5.5.1 Introduction 47 5.5.2 Dispersed Spherical Particles 48 5.6 Terminal Velocity of a Swarm of Particles 53 5.7 Flow Resistance of Heat Exchangers with Tubes 53 References 54 6 Flow Meters 57 6.1 Introduction 57 6.2 Fluid-energy Activated Flow Meters 57 6.2.1 Oval-gear Flow Meter 57 6.2.2 Orifice Meter 57 6.2.3 Venturi Meter 60 6.2.4 Rotameter 60 6.3 External Stimulus Flow Meters 61 6.3.1 Thermal Flow Meter 61 6.3.2 Ultrasonic Flow Meters 62 References 62 7 Case Studies Flow Phenomena 63 7.1 Energy Consumption: Calculation of the Power Potential of a High Artificial Lake 63 7.2 Estimation of the Size of a Pump Motor 64 8 Heat Conduction 67 8.1 Introduction 67 8.2 Thermal Conductivity 68 8.3 Steady-state Heat Conduction 71 8.4 Heating or Cooling of a Solid Body 75 References 78 9 Convective Heat Transfer 79 9.1 Heat Exchangers 79 9.2 Heat Transfer Correlations 84 References 86 10 Heat Transfer by Radiation 87 10.1 Introduction 87 10.2 IR 87 10.3 Dielectric Heating 91 10.3.1 General Aspects 91 10.3.2 RF Heating 93 10.3.3 Microwave Heating 94 References 97 11 Case Studies Heat Transfer 99 11.1 Bulk Materials Heat Exchanger 99 11.2 Heat Exchanger 100 11.3 Surface Temperature of the Sun 102 11.4 Gas IR Textile Drying 102 11.5 Heat Loss by IR Radiation 103 11.6 Microwave Drying of a Pharmaceutical Product 103 References 104 12 Steady-state Diffusion 105 12.1 Introduction and Definition of the Diffusion Coefficient 105 12.2 The Diffusion Coefficient 106 12.3 Steady-state Diffusion 107 References 112 13 Convective Mass Transfer 113 13.1 Partial and Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients 113 13.2 Mass Transfer Between a Fixed Wall and a Flowing Medium 116 13.3 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer at Convective Drying 118 References 121 14 Case Studies Mass Transfer 123 14.1 Equimolar Diffusion 123 14.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Body 123 14.3 Sublimation of a Naphthalene Sphere 124 Reference 126 Notation I 127 Greek Symbols 131 Part II Mixing and Stirring 135 15 Introduction to Mixing and Stirrer Types 137 References 142 16 Mixing Time 143 16.1 Introduction 143 16.2 Approach of Beek et al. 144 16.3 Approach of Zlokarnik 147 References 151 17 Power Consumption 153 References 156 18 Suspensions 157 18.1 Introduction 157 18.2 Power Consumption 162 18.3 Further Work 163 References 164 19 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 165 Reference 167 20 Gas Distribution 169 20.1 Introduction 169 20.2 Turbine 169 20.3 Pitched-Blade Turbine Pumping Downward 175 20.4 Turbine Scale Up 176 20.5 Batch Air Oxidation of a Hydrocarbon 177 20.6 Remark 178 Appendix 20.1 178 References 179 21 Physical Gas Absorption 181 21.1 Introduction 181 21.2 k l . a Measurements 181 21.3 Power Consumption on Scaling Up 184 21.4 Remarks 184 References 184 22 Heat Transfer in Stirred Vessels 185 22.1 Introduction 185 22.2 Heat Transfer Jacket Wall/Process Liquid 185 22.3 Heat Transfer Coil Wall/Process Liquid 188 22.4 Heat Transfer Jacket Medium/Vessel Wall 190 22.5 Heat Transfer Coil Medium/Coil Wall 192 22.6 Batch Heating and Cooling 192 References 193 23 Scale Up of Mixing 195 23.1 Introduction 195 23.2 Homogenization 196 23.3 Suspensions 198 23.4 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 198 23.5 Gas Distribution 198 23.6 k l . a 198 23.7 Heat Transfer 199 References 199 24 Case Studies Mixing and Stirring 201 24.1 Mixing Time—Comparison of Stirrers 201 24.2 Mixing Time—Scale Up of Process 202 24.3 Suspensions 202 24.4 Air Oxidation Optimization 203 24.5 Calculating k l . a 205 24.6 Heating Toluene in a Stirred Vessel 206 24.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Jacketed Reactor 207 24.8 Scale Up of Mixing 209 References 210 Notation II 211 Greek Symbols 213 Part III Chemical Reactors 215 25 Chemical Reaction Engineering—An Introduction 217 25.1 Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) 217 25.2 Kinetic Rate Data and Transport Phenomena 218 25.3 Reactor Types 219 25.4 Batch Reactions Versus Continuous Reactions 221 25.5 Adiabatic Temperature Rise 222 25.6 Recycle 223 25.7 Process Intensification 224 References 226 26 A Few Typical Chemical Reactors 227 26.1 The Carbo-V-Process of Choren 227 26.2 Coal Gasification 227 26.3 Biofuels 229 26.4 Pyrogenic Silica 230 26.5 Microwaves 231 27 The Order of a Reaction 233 27.1 The Rate of a Reaction 233 27.2 Introductory Remarks on the Order of a Reaction 233 27.3 First-Order Reaction 234 27.4 Second-Order Reactions 236 References 239 28 The Rate of Chemical Reactions as a Function of Temperature 241 28.1 Arrhenius’ Law 241 28.2 How to Influence Chemical Reaction Rates 242 Reference 243 29 Chemical Reaction Engineering—A Quantitative Approach 245 29.1 Introduction 245 29.2 Batch Reactor 245 29.3 Plug Flow Reactor 247 29.4 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) 248 29.5 Reactor Choice 251 29.6 Staging 251 29.7 Reversible Reactions 253 30 A Plant Modification: From Batchwise to Continuous Manufacture 257 30.1 Introduction 257 30.2 Batchwise Production 257 30.3 Continuous Manufacture 257 Reference 258 31 Intrinsic Continuous Process Safeguarding 259 31.1 Summary 259 31.2 Introduction 259 31.3 The Production of Organic Peroxides 260 31.4 Intrinsically Safe Processes 260 31.5 Intrinsic Process Safeguarding 261 31.6 Extrinsic Process Safeguarding 261 31.7 Additional Remarks 261 31.8 Practical Approach 262 31.9 Examples 263 References 265 32 Reactor Choice and Scale Up 267 32.1 Introduction 267 32.2 Parallel Reactions 267 32.3 Physical Effects 269 33 Case Studies Chemical Reaction Engineering 271 33.1 Order of a Reaction 271 33.2 Chemical Reaction Rate as a Function of Temperature 273 33.3 Reactor Size 273 33.4 Reversible Reactions 274 33.5 Competing Reactions 276 33.6 The Hydrolysis of Acetic Acid Anhydride 276 33.7 Cumene Air Oxidation 277 References 278 Notation III 279 Greek Symbols 280 Part IV Distillation 281 34 Continuous Distillation 283 34.1 Introduction 283 34.2 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 283 34.3 The Fractionating Column 286 34.4 The Number of Trays Required 288 34.5 The Importance of the Reflux Ratio 292 34.6 A Typical Continuous Industrial Distillation 293 References 294 35 Design of Continuous Distillation Columns 295 35.1 Sieve Tray Columns 295 35.2 Packed Columns 299 Note 302 References 302 36 Various Types of Distillation 303 36.1 Batch Distillation 303 36.2 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation 309 36.3 Steam Distillation 311 References 312 37 Case Studies Distillation 313 37.1 McCabe–Thiele Diagram 313 37.2 Diameter of a Sieve Tray Column and Sieve Tray Pressure Loss 316 37.3 The Distillation of Wine 317 37.4 Steam Distillation 320 Reference 321 Notation IV 323 Greek Symbols 325 Part V Liquid Extraction 327 38 Liquid Extraction – Part 1 329 38.1 Introduction 329 38.2 The Distribution Coefficient 333 38.3 Calculation of the Number of Theoretical Stages in Extraction Operations 334 References 336 39 Liquid Extraction – Part 2 337 39.1 Calculation of the Number of Transfer Units in Extraction Operations 337 Reference 342 40 Flooding 343 40.1 General 343 References 345 41 The Two Liquids Exchanging a Component Are Partially Miscible 347 41.1 Triangular Coordinates 347 41.2 Formation of One Pair of Partially Miscible Liquids 348 41.3 Continuous Countercurrent Multiple-contact Extraction 353 References 355 42 Case Studies Liquid Extraction 357 42.1 A Series of Centrifugal Extractors 357 42.2 Extraction by Means of An Ionic Liquid 359 42.3 Overall Transfer Coefficient/Height of a Transfer Unit 360 42.4 Calculation of the Column Height 362 42.5 Two Partially Miscible Liquids Exchange a Component 363 References 365 Notation V 367 Greek Symbols 369 Part VI Absorption of Gases 371 43 Absorption of Gases 373 43.1 Introduction 373 43.2 Determination of the Number of Theoretical Stages at Absorption of Gases 374 43.3 Estimation of the Diameter of an Absorption Column for Natural Gas 377 43.4 The Absorption of Carbon Dioxide 378 43.5 Design of Absorption Columns 379 References 381 Notation VI 383 Greek Symbols 384 Part VII Membranes 385 44 Membranes—An Introduction 387 44.1 General 387 44.2 Membranes 387 44.3 Three Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation Processes for Aqueous Systems 389 44.4 A Membrane Separation Process for Aqueous Solutions Which Is Driven by an Electrical Potential Difference 390 44.5 Gas Separation 391 44.6 Pervaporation 392 44.7 Medical Applications 392 44.8 Additional Remarks 393 References 394 45 Microfiltration 395 45.1 Introduction 395 45.2 Membrane Types 396 45.3 Membrane Characterization 397 45.4 Filter Construction 397 45.5 Operational Practice 398 References 399 46 Ultrafiltration 401 46.1 Introduction 401 46.2 Membrane Characterization 401 46.3 Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling 402 46.4 Membrane Cleaning 406 46.5 Ultrafiltration Membrane Systems 407 46.6 Continuous Systems 408 46.7 Applications 409 References 411 47 Reverse Osmosis 413 47.1 Osmosis 413 47.2 Reverse Osmosis 414 47.3 Theoretical Background 415 47.4 Concentration Polarization 417 47.5 Membrane Specifications 417 47.6 Membrane Qualities 417 47.7 Reverse Osmosis Units 418 47.8 Membrane Fouling Control and Cleaning 419 47.9 Applications 420 47.10 Nanofiltration Membranes 421 47.11 Conclusions and Future Directions 421 References 421 48 Electrodialysis 423 48.1 Introduction 423 48.2 Functioning of Ion-Exchange Membranes 424 48.3 Types of Ion Exchange Membranes 424 48.4 Transport in Electrodialysis Membranes 425 48.5 Power Consumption 427 48.6 System Design 427 48.7 Applications 428 References 429 49 Gas Separation 431 49.1 Introduction 431 49.2 Theoretical Background 431 49.3 Process Design 436 49.4 Applications 437 References 441 50 Case Studies Membranes 443 50.1 Gel Formation 443 50.2 Osmotic Pressure 443 50.3 Membrane Gas Separation 444 References 445 Notation VII 447 Greek Symbols 448 Part VIII Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 449 51 Crystallization 451 51.1 Introduction 451 51.2 Solubility 451 51.3 Nucleation 452 51.4 Crystal Growth 453 51.5 Crystallizers and Crystallizer Operations 454 51.6 The Population Density Balance 457 51.7 Interpretation of the Results of Population Density Balances 463 References 466 52 Liquid/Solid separation 467 52.1 Introduction 467 52.2 Filtration 467 52.2.1 Introduction 467 52.2.2 Cake Filtration 468 52.2.3 Filter Aids 471 52.2.4 Deep-Bed Filtration 472 52.2.5 Filtration Equipment 472 52.3 Centrifugation 475 Reference 478 53 Convective Drying 479 53.1 Introduction 479 53.2 Four Important Continuous Convective Dryers in the Chemical Industry 480 53.3 A First Example of Convective Drying 482 53.4 The Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 483 53.5 The Wet-Bulb Temperature 485 53.6 The Mollier Diagram 486 53.7 Drying Vacuum Pan Salt in a Plug Flow Fluid-Bed Dryer 488 54 Design of a Flash Dryer 489 54.1 Introduction 489 54.2 Design 489 Reference 491 55 Contact Drying 493 55.1 Introduction 493 55.2 Scaling Up of a Conical Vacuum Dryer 493 55.3 An Additional Remark Concerning Vacuum Drying 497 55.4 Testing a Small Plate Dryer 498 55.5 Testing a Continuous Paddle Dryer 500 55.6 Scale Up of a Thin-Film Dryer 503 Reference 506 56 Case Studies Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 507 56.1 Ultracentrifuges 507 56.2 Le 2/3 507 56.3 Convective Drying- 1 508 56.4 Convective Drying- 2 509 56.5 Analysis of a Spray-Drying Operation 509 56.6 Estimation of the Size of a Contact Dryer 512 References 515 Notation VIII 517 Greek Symbols 519 Part IX Gas/Solid Separation 521 57 Introduction 523 58 Cyclones 525 58.1 Introduction 525 58.2 Sizing and Process Data 525 References 527 59 Fabric Filters 529 59.1 Introduction 529 59.2 Fabrics 529 59.3 Baghouse Construction and Operation 531 Reference 532 60 Scrubbers 533 60.1 Introduction 533 60.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers 534 60.3 Venturi Scrubbers 535 60.4 Mechanical Scrubbers 536 References 537 61 Electrostatic Precipitators 539 61.1 Introduction 539 61.2 Principle of Operation 540 61.3 Process Data 540 61.4 Construction 540 Reference 542 Notation IX 543 Greek Symbols 543 Index 545