Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants

Preface xiii List of Contributors xv 1 Beneficial Elements in Plant Life Under A Changing Environment 1 Misbah Naz, Muhammad Ammar Raza, Muhammad Adnan Bodlah, Sarah Bouzroud, Muhammad Imran Ghani, Muhammad Riaz, Tariq Shah, Akmal Zubair, Imran Bodlah, and Xiaorong Fan Introduction 1 Beneficial Element Interaction with Environment 2 Aluminium (Al) in Plants 3 Aluminium (Al) in Soil – Aluminium, a Friend or Foe of Higher Plants in Acidic Soils 4 Cobalt (Co) in Plants 5 Cobalt (Co) in Soil 6 Silicon (Si) 9 Function of Silicon 10 Silicon in Soil 11 Sodium in Plants 12 Sodium in Soil 12 Selenium (Se) 13 Selenium in Environment 13 Physiological Functions of Beneficial Elements Under A Changing Environment 13 5-Beneficial Elements Against Stresses 14 Conclusion 15 References 15 2 Role of Beneficial Elements in Epigenetic Regulation of Plants in Response to Abiotic Stress Factors 22 Muhittin Kulak and Adnan Aydin Introduction 22 Beneficial Elements for Crop and Non-Crop Plants 22 Selenium 22 Silicon 23 Aluminium 23 Sodium 23 Cobalt 23 Abiotic Stress Factors 23 Epigenetic Modifications Under Stressful Conditions 24 Studies Regarding the Effect of Beneficial Elements on Epigenetic Changes in the Genome of Plants 28 Selenium 28 Cobalt 28 Sodium 29 Aluminium 29 Silicon 30 Conclusion 30 References 30 3 Beneficial Elements and Status of ROS and RNS in Plants: Current Evidence and Future Prospects 38 Biswajita Pradhan, Rabindra Nayak, Srimanta Patra, Chhandashree Behera, Soumya Ranjan Dash, and Mrutyunjay Jena Introduction 38 Essential and Beneficial Elements in Plant Physiology: A Pleasant Dilemma 39 Aluminium 40 Cobalt 41 Sodium 42 Selenium 42 Silicon 44 ROS and RNS Production Sites in Plant Cells: Cellular Redox Compartments with Regards to Essential Elements 45 ROS and RNS Production and Their Function in Plants: Connecting Physiology to Stress Physiology 47 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 48 Acknowledgments 49 Conflicts of Interest 49 References 49 4 Biostimulant Effects and Concentration Patterns of Beneficial Elements in Plants 58 Libia I. Trejo- Téllez, Libia F. Gómez- Trejo, and Fernando C. Gómez- Merino Introduction 58 Aluminium 59 Cerium 69 Cobalt 70 Iodine 72 Lanthanum 73 Selenium 75 Silicon 77 Sodium 79 Titanium 80 Vanadium 82 Conclusions and Perspectives 83 References 84 5 Targeted Effects of Beneficial Elements in Plant Photosynthetic Process 103 Costanza Ceccanti, Ermes Lo Piccolo, Lucia Guidi, and Marco Landi Introduction 103 Effect of Metal Beneficial Elements 104 Effect of Non-metal Beneficial Elements 114 Conclusion 116 References 116 6 Aluminium Stress in Plants: Consequences and Mitigation Mechanisms 123 Akbar Hossain, Sagar Maitra, Sukamal Sarker, Abdullah Al Mahmud, Zahoor Ahmad, Reza Mohammad Emon, Hindu Vemuri, Md Abdul Malek, M. Ashraful Alam, Md Atikur Rahman, Md Jahangir Alam, Nasrin Jahan, Preetha Bhadra, Debojyoti Moulick, Saikat Saha, Milan Skalicky, and Marian Brestic Introduction 123 An Overview of Al Toxicity in Plants 124 Effect on Root Growth 124 Oxidative Stress 126 Nutrient Imbalances 127 Mechanisms for Al Stress Tolerance in Plants 127 Phenotyping for Al-toxicity Tolerance in Plants 128 Physiological Mechanisms of Al Tolerance in Plants 128 Morpho-physiological Mechanisms 129 Biochemical Mechanisms 130 Cellular Mechanisms 130 Phytohormones-based Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 133 Antioxidants-based Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 134 Potential Transgenic Approach for Aluminium Toxicity Improvement 134 Genes Responsive Under Aluminium Toxicity 135 Gene Family Variation 136 Interference in the Resistance Mechanism 136 Expression and Regulation of Gene Families 136 Genetic Engineering 138 Pyramiding of Genes 138 Phytoremediation of Al Stress in Plants 139 Microorganism-mediated Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 142 Agronomic Management for Mitigating Aluminium Stress in Plants 143 Role of Inorganic Amendments for Mitigating Al Toxicity in Plants 144 Calcium (Ca) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 144 Phosphorus (P) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 146 Magnesium (Mg) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 146 Boron (B) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147 Sulphur (S) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147 Silicon (Si) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147 Role of Organic Amendments for Mitigating Al Toxicity in Plants 147 Biochar as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147 Compost or Organic Matter as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 148 Conclusion 148 Conflict of Interest 149 References 149 7 Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake, Transport, and Beneficial Aspects in Plants 169 Zaid Ulhassan, Aamir Mehmood Shah, Ali Raza Khan, Wardah Azhar, Yasir Hamid, and Weijun Zhou Introduction 169 Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake and Transport in Plants 170 Beneficial Aspects of Cobalt in Plants 172 Growth and Yield 172 Nitrogen Fixation and Nodule Formation 173 Alterations in Nutrient Status 173 Alterations in Physiological and Biochemical Constituents 174 Antioxidant Enzyme Activities and Synthesis of Hormones 175 Protective Roles of Cobalt Against Abiotic Stresses 175 Conclusions and Future Prospects 176 Acknowledgments 177 References 177 8 Cobalt in Plant Life: Responses and Deficiency Symptoms 182 Xiu Hu, Xiangying Wei, Jie Ling, and Jianjun Chen Introduction 182 Cobalt in Lower Plants 184 Bryophytes 184 Algae 185 Cobalt in Higher Plants 186 Root Absorption of Cobalt 186 Cobalt Transport in Plants 187 Cobalt Effects on Plant Growth 188 Cobalt is Essential for N 2 Fixation in Nodulated Legumes 188 Cobalt Enhances Growth of Non-Leguminous Crops 190 Possible Mechanisms 190 Other Beneficial Effects on Plants 192 Cobalt Deficiency in Plants 192 Cobalt Toxicity in Plants 194 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 196 References 197 9 Silicon Uptake, Transport, and Accumulation in Plants 205 Shivani Sharma, Muntazir Mushtaq, Sreeja Sudhakaran, Vandana Thakral, Gaurav Raturi, Ruchi Bansal, Virender Kumar, Sanskriti Vats, S. M. Shivaraj, and Rupesh Deshmukh Introduction 205 Molecular Mechanism Involved in Silicon Uptake 206 Seminal Studies Defining Uptake of Silicon in Different Plant Species 206 Silicon Influx Transporter 207 Silicon Efflux Transporter 209 Cordial Activity of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter 211 Other Homologs of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter 213 Silicon Transporters yet to be Discovered 213 Silicon Deposition in Different Tissues 214 Silicon Deposition in Roots 214 Silicon Deposition in Shoot 214 Silicon Deposition in Leaves 216 Phytoliths: Biochemical Composition and Deposition Patterns 217 Silicon Deposition and the Phytolith Formation 218 Role of Phytoliths in the Silicon Biogeochemical Cycle 220 References 222 10 Silicon in Soil, Plants, and Environment 227 Mujahid Ali, Muhammad Zia Ur Rehman, Asad Jamil, Muhammad Ashar Ayub, and Muhammad Tahir Shehzad Introduction 227 Sources of Silicon in Soil, Plants and Environment 228 Natural Sources 228 Artificial/Synthetic Sources 228 Uses of Silicon 229 Industrial Use 229 Application in Agro-ecosystems 229 Role of Silicon in Plant Nutrition-Growth Responses 230 Nutrient Acquisition 230 Plant Growth Promotion 230 Gas Exchange Attributes Modulation 230 Plant Water Balance 230 Antioxidant Enzymes Activities 231 Uptake and Translocation Mechanisms of Silicon 231 Role of Silicon in Agriculture 232 Role of Silicon in Abiotic Stress Management 232 Heavy Metals 232 Salinity 232 Water Stress 234 Temperature Stress 234 Role of Silicon in Biotic Stress Management 237 Pest Attack 237 Role of Silicon in Disease Management 237 Silicon-Mediated Endogenous Modifications in Plants 238 C. Mechanism of Silicon-Mediated Abiotic Stress Management 238 D. Mechanism of Silicon-Mediated Biotic Stress Management 241 Source of Silicon for Agricultural Application 241 Recommendations for Exogenous Silicon Applications 242 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 242 References 242 11 Silicon- Mediated Alleviation of Heavy Metal Stress in Plants 256 Sana Rana, Muhammad Zia ur Rehman, Muhammad Umair, Muhammad Ashar Ayub, and Muhammad Arif Introduction 256 Heavy Metal (HM) Sources in Agro-ecosystem 257 The Response of Plants Towards HM Stress 257 Sources of Silicon in Soil 258 Role of Silicon in HM Stress Management 258 Silicon Role in Plant Nutrition 259 Silicon-Mediated HM Management Mechanisms 259 Reduction of HM Uptake 259 Modification of Rhizosphere Chemistry/Making Si Complexes with Metals 260 Stimulation of Antioxidants 260 Help in Compartmentation of HM Inside Plants 260 Gene Expression Modification 261 Structural and Physiological Modification 261 Exogenous Application of Silicon to Manage HM Toxicity 261 Silicon Fertilizer 262 Biogenic Si Sources (Organic Amendments Enriched in Si) 262 Silicon Nanoparticles 265 Summary 266 References 266 12 How Does Sodium Content in Growing Media Affect the Chemical Content of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants? Two Sides of the Coin 277 Ahmet Metin Kumlay, Muhittin Kulak, Mehmet Zeki Kocak, Ferdi Celikcan, and Mehmet Hakki Alma Introduction 277 What Kinds of Functions Have Been Attributed to Sodium for Proper Metabolism of the Plant? 278 What Kind of Perturbations Might Emerge in Case of Deficiency or Excessive Accumulation of Sodium in Growing Media and in Turn, in Plants? 279 What Are the Major Mechanisms Associated with the Damage Caused by High Salinity? 279 Compartmentalization of Sodium Through Plant Parts 280 Why Is the Sodium/Potassium Ratio Important for Plant Metabolism? 280 How Do Priming or Osmo-Conditioning Seeds Using NaCl Solutions Imprint the Sequential Growth Performance or Stage of the Plants? An Approach Regarding Imprint Memory with Low Concentration versus Higher Subsequent Concentration of NaCl 281 What Are Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Metabolites of Those Plants? How Do Those Metabolites Respond to Higher Content of Na in Media Regarding Total Content and Their Specific Compounds? 281 The Growth, Development, and Yield are Adversely Affected Under High Sodium Concentration of Growing Media, but What Can We Say for Contents of Total Metabolites or Specific Compounds? 282 Alkaloids 282 Terpenoids 283 Phenolics 286 What Kinds of Explanations Have Been Postulated for Changes Concerned with Defence-Related Metabolites in Those Plants Exposed to Higher Levels of Sodium in Growing Media? 297 Do Lower or Higher Concentration of the Sodium Favour Metabolites? 297 Two Sides of the Coin: Is a Third Probability Possible for Plant Production Versus Secondary Metabolite Production? 298 Conclusion 298 References 299 13 Sodium and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants 307 Misbah Naz, Muhammad Imran Ghani, Muhammad Jawaad Atif, Muhammad Ammar Raza, Sarah Bouzroud, Muhammad Rahil Afzal, Muhammad Riaz, Maratab Ali, Muhammad Tariq, and Xiaorong Fan Introduction 307 Relationship Between Salinity and Plant 309 Salinity and the Ideal Sustainable Agricultural System 310 Relationship Between Salinity and Sodicity and Soil 311 Salt Stress Effects on Plants 311 Management Strategies to Mitigate Salt Injury 312 Salt Sensitivity 313 Genetic Engineering and Salt-Tolerant Transgenic Plants 316 Role of Sodium in Plants 317 Osmotic Tolerance 318 Proteomics Study in Plant Responses and Tolerance to Salt Stress 318 Ion Uptake/Homeostasis 319 Role of Phytohormones for Abiotic Stress Tolerance 320 Interaction Between Na + and K + in Plants 321 Interactions Between Na + and Mg 2+ in Plants 322 Interactions Between Na + and Ca 2+ in Plants 322 Conclusion 323 References 323 14 Selenium Species in Plant Life: Uptake, Transport, Metabolism, and Biochemistry 331 Zaid Ulhassan, Ali Raza Khan, Wardah Azhar, Yasir Hamid, Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, and Weijun Zhou Selenium Speciation in the Soil-Plant System 331 Accumulation and Uptake of Selenium Species by Plants 331 Transport Mechanisms of Selenium Species within Plants 333 Selenium Metabolism in Plants 333 Step 1: Conversion of Selenate into Selenite and Selenide 333 Step 2: Selenide to Selenocysteine (SeCys) Transformation 334 Step 3: Transformation of Selenocysteine (SeCys) into Elemental Se 0 and Alanine (Ala) 335 Step 4: Metabolic Pathways of Methyl Selenomethionine (MeSeMet) 335 Biochemistry of Selenium 335 Is Selenium an Essential Trace Element for Plants? 335 Conversion of Inorganic to Organic Selenium Forms (The First Step of the Se-Assimilation Pathway) 336 Adaptive Mechanisms by Plants to Evade Selenium Toxicity Participation of Se-Amino Acids 338 Volatilization of Selenium Organic Compounds 338 Involvement of Selenocysteine Lyase 339 Sequestration of Selenium Organic Compounds 339 Antioxidant Defense Mechanisms 340 Involvement of Phytohormones or Signalling Molecules 340 General Conclusions and Future Prospects 341 Acknowledgments 342 References 342 15 Lanthanides as Beneficial Elements for Plants 349 Fernando C. Gómez- Merino, Libia F. Gómez- Trejo, Rubén Ruvalcaba- Ramírez, and Libia I. Trejo- Téllez Introduction 349 Lanthanides in Biological Systems 353 Lanthanides in Plants 355 Beneficial Effects of Lanthanides in Plants 356 Conclusions and Future Research Needs 360 References 360 Index 370