Beneath the Mask

1. Basic Issues: How to Approach the Study of Personality Theories 1 A Useful Metaphor: The Mask and the Person Beneath 1 Beginning the Study of Personality: A Personal Note 2 One Truth or Many Perspectives? 3 Personality Theories as Creative Solutions to Personal Problems 5 What About Abnormal Psychology? 6 Personology Or Personality Theory? 8 Impact of Culture and Society 9 Three Major Tools for Evaluating Personality Theories 10 Additional Dimensions of Personality Theories 12 Some Welcoming Words 14 For Further Reading 14 Glossary 14 2. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Clinical Evidence 15 About Freud’s Clinical Psychoanalysis 15 A Personal Aside: Why Study Freud’s Ideas? 16 The Hysterical Neurosis of Bertha Pappenheim 17 “Clouds”: Self-Induced Hypnosis 19 Hypnosis and Hysteria: From Pathology to Cure 24 Frau Emmy Von N. 28 First Clue in the Discovery of Free Association: Freud Learns to Listen 30 The Theoretical Yield from Frau Emmy’s Therapy 32 The Evolution of Method: Fraülein Von R. 33 Second Clue to the Free Association Method: The Pressure or Concentration Technique 34 The Theoretical Yield from Fraülein Ilona Weiss’s Therapy 39 A Final Clue to the Free Association Method 41 Freud’s Continuing Theorizing about Hypnosis 42 Compromise Formation: The Meaning of Symptoms 42 Sexual Motives as the Basis of Conflict: Origins of the Hypothesis 44 Freud’s Integrity Questioned— and the Questioner Questioned 47 Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: Freud’s Self-Analysis 49 Psychosexual Development: Oedipus and Electra 53 The Complete Oedipal Complex 58 Psychosexual Stages: Libidinal Organization 63 Evaluating Clinical Psychoanalysis 67 Summary 69 For Further Reading 70 Glossary 71 3. Sigmund Freud / Psychoanalysis: The Dynamic Model of the Mind 74 About Freud’s Model of the Mind 74 Dreams as Wish Fulfillment 75 Personal Sources: Freud’s Father and Mother Dreams 76 Manifest and Latent Dream Content: The Mask 80 Four Processes of Dream Work 81 Study of the Dream: Theoretical Yield 84 The Reality Principle 88 The Meanings of the Unconscious in Psychoanalysis 89 Metapsychology of Repression 91 Instincts of the Unconscious 93 Characteristics of Instincts 93 Dualistic Division of the Instincts: Hunger versus Love 94 Behaviors Beyond the Pleasure Principle: The Clinical Evidence 97 Reduction of the Pleasure Principle to a Pleasure “Tendency” 98 Revision of Instinct Theory: Eros and Death 100 The Final Structural Model of the Mind 103 The Id 104 The Ego 104 The Superego 106 Id, Ego, Superego Interactions 109 Freud’s Changing Conceptions of Anxiety 110 Evaluating Theoretical Psychoanalysis 113 Summary 116 For Further Reading 117 Glossary 118 4. Alfred Adler / Individual Psychology 121 Adler’s Individual Psychology 121 Adler’s Boyhood Difficulties: Illness, Rejection, and the Fear of Death 122 Freud and Adler: Dissent over the Fundamental Human Motive 123 Adler’s Differences with Freud 124 On Human Nature—Adler, the Naϊıve Optimist, or Freud, the Realistic Pessimist?125 From Minus to Plus Self-Estimates 126 Masculine Protest: Not for Men Only 128 Social Interest and Adler’s Religious Values 129 Individuality, Social Interest and Style of Life: Vaihinger’s Idea of Fictional Finalism 129 Combining Vaihinger’s Ideas with His Own Theory 130 The Neurotic Personality: Overdoing the Search for Perfection 131 Social Interest and the Tasks of Life 135 Individuality, Social Interest, and Style of Life 137 Early Recollections as Indicators of Style of Life 138 Ordinal Position within the Family as Indicator of Style of Life 139 Evaluating Alfred Adler 141 Summary 143 For Further Reading 144 Glossary 145 5. Carl Gustav Jung / Analytical Psychology 147 About Jung’s Analytical Psychology 147 Experimental Study of Word Associations 148 Emotional Complex Indicators 149 Discovering a Case of Criminally Negligent Homicide through the Word Association Test 150 Jung’s Concept of Libido 152 The Principles of Equivalence and Entropy 152 Learning from Ancient Mythology 153 Visionary and Creative or Just Crazy? 154 Jung and Freud: From Admiration to Bitterness 159 Jung’s Philosophical Background 160 Structure of the Psyche: Ego, Personal, and Collective Unconscious 160 Archetypes and Their Origins 162 Archetypes, Popular Culture, and Society 166 Jungian Attitude Types: Freud the Extrovert and Adler the Introvert 166 The Functions of the Psyche 167 The Extrovert Types 168 The Introvert Types 170 The Process of Individuation 171 Development of the Self: A Teleological View of Life 172 Evaluating Carl Jung 174 Summary 176 For Further Reading 177 Glossary 177 6. Anna Freud / Widening the Scope of Psychoanalysis: Ego Psychology 179 About Ego Psychology 179 Legitimizing Ego Psychology 180 Personal Sources: From Being Unwanted to Becoming Indispensable 180 Widening the Scope of Analysis: Little Patients’ Problems 185 Making the Child Analyzable: The Preparatory Phase 186 The Child Analysis: Proper Techniques 188 The Theoretical Yield: New Meanings for Familiar Analytic Concepts 192 The Ego Defends Itself: Profiles of Mastery and Vulnerability 199 A Final Word on Anna Freud 204 The Legacy of Anna Freud 204 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Ego Psychologists 205 Summary 205 For Further Reading 206 Glossary 206 7. Melanie Klein & Donald W. Winnicott / The Psychoanalytic Heritage: Object Relations Theories 208 About Object Relations Theories 208 MELANIE KLEIN What are Psychoanalytic Object Relations Theories? 209 Psychoanalysis as Pedagogy: Educating Erich 209 Klein’s Discovery of “Phantasy” 209 Development of the Object World 211 Infantile Sadism and the Oedipus Complex 212 How It All Turns Out: Klein’s First Theory of the Superego 215 Anxiety: First Modifications of Klein’s Developmental Theory 217 Hate Versus Guilt: Repairing the Ravages of Sadism 219 Paranoic and Depressive Positions: Klein’s First Theory 220 Manic and Depressive Positions in Adult Psychopathology 221 Love, Guilt, and Reparation 224 Projection + Identification = Splitting Revisited 225 Reparation: The Link between Positions 229 Envy and Gratitude: The Forever Generous, Tolerant, and Bountiful Breast 230 Defending Against Envy: The Most Deadly of Sins 232 Some Personal Sources of Klein’s Vision of the Infant’s World 234 A Final Word on Melanie Klein 237 D. W. WINNICOTT A Commonsensical and Creative Child Analyst 237 Unconventional Psychoanalysis: The Pediatric Consultation Model 240 Early Theory: The Kleinian Influence 245 Primitive Personality Development: Winnicott Style 247 Environmental Emphasis: “There’s No Such Thing as a Baby” 249 Exploring Deeper Questions 257 Personal Sources from Winnicott’s Childhood 258 A Final Word on D. W. Winnicott 261 Evaluating Object Relations Theory 261 Summary 262 For Further Reading 265 Glossary 265 8. Erik Homburger Erikson / Psychoanalytic Ego Psychology: The Centrality of Identity 267 About Erikson’s Ego Psychology 267 Identity’s Architect  268 Life History Sources of the Identity Hypothesis 270 Clinical Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: War Veterans 271 Anthropological Sources of the Identity Hypothesis: The Oglala Sioux 273 The Ego Identity Hypothesis and Psychoanalytic Theory 274 Psychosocial Development: An Epigenetic Sequence 275 Viewing Erikson’s Epigenetic Theory of Identity Formation 276 The Life Cycle: Eight Stages of Human Development 278 Acquiring a Sense of Trust versus Mistrust: Hope 280 Acquiring a Sense of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt: Will 281 Acquiring a Sense of Initiative versus Guilt: Purpose 283 Acquiring a Sense of Industry versus Inferiority: Competence 284 Acquiring a Sense of Identity versus Role Confusion: Fidelity 285 Acquiring a Sense of Intimacy versus Isolation: Love 287 Acquiring a Sense of Generativity versus Stagnation: Care 288 Acquiring Ego Integrity versus Despair: Wisdom 289 Applying Erikson’s Stage Theory 291 Some Concluding Remarks on Erikson 291 Evaluating Erik Erikson 292 Summary 293 For Further Reading 294 Glossary 294 9. Harry Stack Sullivan / Interpersonal Theory 298 About Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory 298 Three Modes of Experience: Prototaxic, Parataxic, Syntaxic 299 The Development of Personality: An Interpersonal Emphasis 301 Differentiation of Self from the Universe 302 Personal Sources of Sullivan’s Emphasis on Human Relationships 303 Personifications of Self: Good-Me, Bad-Me, Not-Me 309 The Self-System: Security Operations 311 Selective Inattention 313 Me-You Personifications 313 Developmental Epochs: From Infancy to Late Adolescence 314 Evaluating Harry Stack Sullivan 318 Summary 319 For Further Reading 320 Glossary 320 10. Karen Horney / Psychoanalytic Social Psychology 322 About Horney’s Social Psychoanalytic Approach 322 Anxious in a Hostile World 323 Neurotic1 Needs and Trends 325 Personal Sources of the Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility Hypotheses 326 An Illustrative Case: Clare, An Unwanted Child 331 Despised Real Self, Ideal Self, and the Actual Self 332 The Core Neurotic Conflict: Alienation from Real Self 334 Interpersonal Coping Strategies: Moves Toward, Against, and Away from Others 335 Auxiliary Conflict Solutions 339 Horney’s Feminist, Culturally Based Modifications of Freudian Theory 341 A Final Word on Karen Horney 343 Summary 343 For Further Reading 344 Glossary 344 11. Gordon W. Allport / Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346 About Allport’s Humanistic Trait and Self Theory 346 Was Young Allport Misunderstood by Freud Himself? 347 “How Shall a Psychological Life History Be Written?” 348 Toward a Personalistic Psychology 349 Personal Sources of Allport’s Emphasis on Uniqueness and Independence 350 Personality: Allport’s Definition 352 Personal Documents: An Idiographic Approach to Life History 356 An Illustrative Case: Analysis of Jenny Gove Masterson’s Letters 358 Criticisms and Allport’s Responses 361 “Traits Revisited”: Heuristic Realism 362 The Mature, Healthy Personality 362 Functional Autonomy: Allport’s Theory of Motivation 366 Evaluating Gordon Allport 368 Summary 369 For Further Reading 370 Glossary 371 12. Rollo May / Existential Phenomenology 373 About Rollo May’s Existential Phenomenology 373 A Lonely Young Man, Looking for Answers to Deep Questions 374 Existential Phenomenological Psychology and Psychotherapy 377 Contributions of European Philosophy 377 Ontological Principles: “Mrs. Hutchens” 378 The Problem of Nothingness 383 Personal Sources of May’s Existentialism 385 Love and Will 388 Four Forms of Loving 388 Good and Evil 391 Will 392 Freedom 394 Destiny 395 Evaluating Rollo May 397 Summary 398 For Further Reading 399 Glossary 400 13. Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers / Humanistic Self-Actualization Theory 402 About Maslow and Rogers’ Humanistic Psychologies 402 ABRAHAM MASLOW What About the Healthy Personality and the Striving for Full Self-Realization? 403 The Origin of Maslow’s Interest in Psychological Health 404 Personal Sources of the Hypothesis: “In Pursuit of Angels” 406 Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Persons 408 Learning from Critical Mentor Figures 410 The Hierarchy of Needs: From Deficiency to Growth Motivation and Self-Actualization 410 Beyond Self-Actualization: The B-Values 419 Humanistic Psychology: The Third Force 421 Toward a Transpersonal Viewpoint 421 CARL ROGERS A Harbinger of Things to Come 422 Rogers’ Theory of Personality and Behavior 423 Psychotherapist as Self-Actualization Facilitator 426 Development of the Nondirective Viewpoint 428 Personal Sources of Rogers’ Emphasis on Freedom and Self-Worth 430 Early Nondirective View: Too Much Freedom 433 Client-Centered Therapy: Empathic Understanding 434 Experiential Therapy: The Conditions of Personality Change 434 Personality Changes Evoked by the Therapeutic Relationship 436 The Fully Functioning Person: Ideal Mental Health 437 Rogers’ Model of Development 438 The Importance of Approval 438 Incongruence between Self and Experience 440 Personality Disorganization 440 Some Criticisms of Rogers’ Approach 441 Operationalizing the Concept of Self: Q-Sort Methodology 441 Evaluating Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers 443 Summary 444 For Further Reading 445 Glossary 446 14. George A. Kelly / Personal Construct Theory 449 About George A. Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 449 Uncovering a Person’s Constructs of Personality 450 Grid Form of the Rep Test: A Person’s Own Personality Theory 452 Kelly: The Inventive Psychological Tinkerer 455 Each Person is a Scientist 457 Kelly’s Fundamental Postulate and 11 Corollaries 457 Construction and Individuality Corollaries: The Person as a Process 458 Hierarchy of Experience: Organization and Dichotomy Corollaries 458 Choice, Range, and Experience Corollaries: Limitations of Anticipation 459 Modulation and Fragmentation Corollaries: Variation versus Stability 460 Commonality and Sociality Corollaries: Shared Experience 461 The Mask Metaphor Again 462 The CPC Cycle: Circumspection, Preemption, and Control/Choice 463 Some Traditional Personality Variables as Kelly Recast Them 466 Evaluating Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 468 Summary 469 For Further Reading 470 Glossary 470 15. Albert Bandura / Social Cognitive Theory 472 About Social Cognitive Theory 472 Misconstrued as a Behaviorist 473 What About Bandura’s Own Life? 480 Developmental Phases of Self-Efficacy 481 Selective Activation of Self-Controls 488 Bandura’s Model of Anxiety and Repression 489 Does Chance Play a Role in Life? 491 Bandura’s Theories and Today’s World 492 Evaluating the Approach of Bandura 492 Summary 493 For Further Reading 494 Glossary 494 16. Hans Eysenck / Biologically Based Typology 496 About Eysenck’s Biologically Based Typology 496 Research Psychologist as Scientist and a Bit of a Maverick 497 Childhood Sources of Eysenck’s Intellectual Independence 497 Early Descriptive Researches: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism 501 Historical Antecedents of Introversion-Extroversion Dimensions 503 Pavlov’s Dogs: Excitation-Inhibition Temperaments 504 Hull’s Drive Theory: Individual Differences in Performance 509 Individual Differences and Eysenck’s Typology 510 Arousability and the Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS) 512 Translation of Excitation-Inhibition into Arousal Concepts 514 A Direct Test of the Arousal Theory: Stimulant and Depressant Drugs 519 Acquisition of Neurosis: The Socialization of Introverts and Extroverts 519 Psychoticism: Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited 521 Psychoticism, Crime, and Genetics 522 The “Big Five”: A Model Based on Factor Analysis 526 Evaluating Eysenck’s Typology 528 Summary 529 For Further Reading 531 Glossary 531 17. Edward O. Wilson / Evolutionary Psychology 534 About Evolutionary Psychology 534 The Roots of a Naturalist 535 Encountering Lorenz and His Ideas 538 Darwin’s (and Wallace’s) Theory of Natural Selection 539 Wilson Encounters Hamilton’s Ideas 541 From Insect Societies to Sociobiology to Human Nature 542 Evolutionary Concepts in Classical Personality Theories 544 Further Developments in Evolutionary Psychological Thinking 549 Human Nature Does Exist 553 Evolutionary Psychology from a Broader, More Objective Perspective 554 Some Misconceptions About Evolutionary Psychology 555 How Might an Evolutionary Psychologist Proceed? 557 An Actual Example—Not of Postdiction, but of Prediction—Sort of 558 Evolutionary Psychology and Psychopathology 561 A Final Word on Evolutionary Psychology 562 Summary 564 For Further Reading 564 Glossary 565 Bibliography 567 Photo Credits 585 Name Index 587 Subject Index 591