Aquatic Pollution

Preface xv 1 Fundamental Concepts 1 Simple Food Chain Theory 1 Ecological Pyramids 3 Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6 Food Chain Magnification 9 Food Webs 10 Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12 Questions 13 References 15 2 Photosynthesis 17 Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18 Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22 Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26 Long Island Bays 30 Canadian Experimental Lakes 31 Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33 Questions 37 References 38 3 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43 Physical Properties of Water 43 Water Column Stability and Overturning 45 The Importance of Overturning 48 Seasonal Production Cycles 49 Trophic Status 50 Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51 Estuaries: A Special Case 52 Chesapeake Bay 55 The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64 Questions 67 References 68 4 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71 Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72 History of Eutrophication 73 Effects of Sewage Diversion 76 Nutrient Limitation 79 Oxygen Depletion 80 Water Clarity 83 Cyanobacteria 84 Theoretical Predictions 85 Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88 The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land‐Use Modifications 89 The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90 The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93 The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94 Sediment in Land Runoff 96 Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96 Remedial Efforts 98 Toxic Substances 98 Eutrophication 99 Prospects for Lake Erie 105 Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114 Physical Setting 114 The Coral Reefs 116 Urbanization of the Watershed 116 Changes in Land Runoff 116 Sewage Disposal 119 Effects of Sewage Disposal 120 Response to Sewage Diversion 121 Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123 Questions 126 References 128 5 Nonpoint Source Pollution 133 Definitions 133 Composition of Land Runoff 134 Types of Sewer Systems 136 Corrective Measures 138 Use of Settling Basins 138 Ground Recharge Basins 139 Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140 Minimizing Runoff 141 Summary 143 A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143 Correctives 150 Questions 155 References 156 6 Sewage Treatment 159 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159 Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161 Trickling Filters 161 Activated Sludge 162 Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163 The Anaerobic Digester 164 Tertiary Treatment 165 Phosphorus Removal 166 Nitrogen Removal 167 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168 Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169 Land Application of Sewage 170 Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172 Limiting Factors 179 Use of Sewage Sludge 180 Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183 Detergent Phosphates 185 Questions 188 References 190 7 Pathogens in Natural Waters 195 Sources of Pathogens 197 Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198 Bacterial Pathogens 199 Protozoan Pathogens 206 Viral Pathogens 208 Helminths 212 Tests for Pathogens 213 Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219 Removal of Suspended Solids 219 Filtration 219 Chlorination 220 Alternatives to Chlorination 221 Impact of Treatment 222 Questions 222 References 224 8 Toxicology 229 The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229 Kinds of Toxicity 231 Sublethal Effects 231 Reproduction 232 Development and Growth 234 Behavior 237 Determination of Toxicity 237 Acute Toxicity Determination 238 Chronic Toxicity Determination 239 Median Survival Times 240 Incipient Lethal Levels 241 Sublethal Effects 242 Water Quality Standards 243 Acute Effects 243 Chronic Toxicity 244 Acute/Chronic Ratios 245 Toxicity to Plants 247 The Two-Number Criterion 247 Complicating Factors 248 Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248 Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250 Conditioning and Acclimation 252 Interactions between Toxic Substances 253 Public Health 257 Noncarcinogenic Effects 257 Application to Cadmium 260 Carcinogenic Effects 262 Protection of Wildlife 264 Commentary 264 Questions 265 References 268 9 Industrial Pollution 273 The Oxygen Sag 273 Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276 The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279 Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282 Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282 Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283 Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285 Response to the EPA Survey 286 Present Status of the Industry 288 The Pulp and Paper Industry 290 Steps in the Production of Paper 292 Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295 Suspended Solids 296 Dissolved Organics 298 Toxic Substances 299 Wastewater Treatment 300 A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301 Commentary 304 Questions 306 References 307 10 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311 Classification of Pesticides 313 Mode of Action 315 Pesticide Use 316 Public Health 316 Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316 Agriculture 319 Forestry 321 Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322 Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322 DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323 Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324 The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325 DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326 DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328 DDT Causes Cancer 330 Implications 331 Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332 Pesticide Effects on Birds 336 Field Observations 337 Laboratory Studies 339 Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342 Pest Resistance 343 Mechanisms of Resistance 344 The Cost of Pest Resistance 344 Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345 Biological Control 345 Natural Predators and Parasites 345 Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346 Genetic Control 347 Resistant Plants 347 Sterile Males 348 Chemical Control 350 Integrated Pest Management 351 Commentary 353 EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355 Persistent Organic Pollutants 359 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359 Problems with PCBs 361 Persistence of PCBs 363 Questions 365 References 367 11 Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375 Power Plant Design 376 Water Quality Criteria 377 Cooling Water System Characteristics 378 Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379 Sublethal Effects 381 Commentary 383 A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383 The Study Area 383 The Power Plant 385 Effects on Biota 386 Modifications 388 Commentary 389 Correctives 389 Cooling Canals 390 Cooling Towers 390 Problems 390 Internal Plant Kills 392 Screen Impingements 392 Inner Plant Kills 395 Commentary 397 Correctives 398 Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400 Cogeneration Power Plants 400 Agriculture 402 Aquaculture 403 Other Uses 406 Questions 407 References 408 12 Metals 413 The Question of Biological Magnification 416 Case Studies 417 Mercury 418 Production and Uses 418 Fluxes to the Environment 422 Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426 Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432 Seafood Consumption 438 Cadmium 439 Distribution, Production, and Uses 439 Emissions to the Environment 442 Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445 Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445 Toxicity 445 Itai‐Itai Disease: A Case Study 447 Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451 Lead 453 Production and Use 453 Emissions 457 Toxicology 462 Commentary 465 Questions 469 References 471 13 Oil Pollution 479 Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480 Natural Sources 480 Marine Seeps 480 Anthropogenic Sources 481 Platforms 481 Atmospheric Deposition 482 Produced Waters 482 Pipeline Spills 482 Tanker Spills 482 Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483 Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485 Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485 Land‐Based Runoff 485 Recreational Marine Vessels 485 Spills (Non‐tankers) 485 Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486 Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486 Atmospheric Deposition 486 Aircraft Dumping 486 Commentary 486 The Genesis of Oil 488 Sedimentation 488 Metamorphosis 489 Migration 489 What Is Oil? 490 Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490 Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491 Aromatics 491 Toxicology 493 Oiling and Ingestion 493 Weathering 496 Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498 Human Health 500 Case Studies 501 Exxon Valdez 501 The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501 Cleanup 502 Fate of Spilled Oil 503 Effects on Organisms 503 Summary 507 Deepwater Horizon 508 Buzzards Bay 510 Summary 513 Correctives 514 Prevention 514 Cleanup 515 Offloading 515 Burning 516 Chemical Dispersal 516 Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517 Sinking 517 Bioremediation 518 Summary 519 Oil Fingerprinting 520 Commentary 522 Questions 523 References 524 14 Radioactivity 529 Physical Background 529 Radiation Toxicology 532 The No Threshold and Linear Dose–Response Hypotheses 534 Health Effect Estimates 536 Current Levels of Exposure 538 Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541 Effects on Aquatic Systems 542 Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544 Nuclear Fusion 550 Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552 Routine Radionuclide Releases 553 Accidents 556 The NRX Accident 556 Windscale 557 The SL‐1 Incident 559 The Fermi Reactor Accident 560 The Three Mile Island Incident 562 Chernobyl 563 Fukushima Daiichi 565 Summary 565 Waste Disposal 569 Types of Radioactive Waste 569 History of Disposal 569 The Search for Long‐Term Disposal Sites 573 Transmutation 576 Uranium Mine Wastes 576 Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579 Commentary 581 Questions 582 References 584 15 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589 Acid Deposition 589 Acid Rain 590 History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591 Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594 Acid Deposition Toxicology 595 Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598 Correctives 600 So X Removal 601 Pretreatment 601 Conversion 602 Coal Gasification 602 Coal Liquefaction 602 Methanol Production 602 Combustion 603 Fluidized Bed Combustion 603 Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603 Post‐combustion 603 Stack Gas Scrubbing 603 Electron Beam Method 604 No X Removal 604 Pretreatment and Conversion 604 Combustion 604 Post‐combustion 605 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605 Comments 605 Legal Aspects 606 A Case Study: The Netherlands 608 Commentary 610 Ocean Acidification 610 Solutions 617 Questions 618 References 618 16 Groundwater Pollution 623 Reliance on Groundwater 623 General Aquifer Information 624 Overdrafting 625 The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627 Septic Tanks 627 Saltwater Contamination 627 Fracking 628 Sewage 628 Mining Activities 629 Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629 Toxic Chemicals 629 Illegal Disposal 632 Magnitude of the Problem 634 A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636 Legal Considerations 641 Rcra 641 Sdwa 642 Cwa 643 Cercla 644 Other Legislation 646 Enforcement 647 Correctives 648 Cleanup 648 Prevention 650 The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653 Questions 654 References 655 17 Plastics in the Sea 659 The Nature of the Problem 659 Effects 661 Aesthetics 661 Ingestion 662 Entanglement 664 Ghost Fishing 665 Other Causes of Entanglement 667 Damage to Vessels 668 Correctives 668 Marpol Annex V 668 Other Legislation 671 Degradable Plastic 673 Solutions Through Technology 673 Education 674 Questions 675 References 676 Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681 References 683 Aquatic Pollution 685 Answers to Questions 685 References 705 Glossary 707 Index 733