Applied English Phonology

Preface to Fourth Edition x Note to the Instructor xi About the Companion Website xii Abbreviations xiii Chapter 1 Phonetics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Phonetic Transcription 1 1.3 Description and Articulation of Sounds of English 4 1.3.1 The vocal tract 4 1.3.2 Voicing 5 1.3.3 Places of articulation 6 1.3.4 Manners of articulation 7 1.3.5 Voice onset time 9 1.3.6 Vowels and diphthongs 12 1.4 Additional Sounds 13 1.4.1 States of the glottis 13 1.4.2 Places and manners of articulation 14 1.4.3 Secondary articulations 16 1.4.4 Consonants made with non‐pulmonic airstream mechanisms 18 1.4.5 Vowels 19 1.5 Cardinal Vowels 20 1.6 Syllables and Suprasegmentals 21 Summary 25 Exercises 25 Chapter 2 Phonology 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Complementary versus Overlapping Distribution 32 2.2.1 Overlapping distribution and contrast 32 2.2.2 Complementary distribution 34 2.3 Phonemic Analysis: A Mini‐Demo 37 2.4 Free Variation 46 2.5 Morphophonology 47 2.6 Practical Uses of Phonological Analysis 49 Summary 52 Exercises 52 Chapter 3 English Consonants 58 3.1 Stops 58 3.2 Fricatives 64 3.3 Affricates 67 3.4 Nasals 68 3.5 Approximants 70 3.6 Sociophonetic Variation 72 Summary 74 Exercises 74 Chapter 4 English Vowels 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Vowel Set of American English 79 4.2.1 Phonetic properties of vowels 80 4.2.2 Tense–lax 81 4.2.3 Nasalized vowels 82 4.2.4 Length 82 4.2.5 Vowels before /ɹ̣/ 83 4.2.6 Vowels before /l/ 84 4.3 Front Vowels 85 4.4 Central Vowels 86 4.5 Back Vowels 86 4.6 Diphthongs 87 4.7 Sociophonetic Variation 90 4.8 Non‐US Varieties 91 4.9 Full Vowels–Reduced Vowels 93 4.10 Full (Strong) Forms versus Reduced (Weak) Forms of Function Words 95 Summary 97 Exercises 98 Chapter 5 Acoustics of Vowels and Consonants 102 5.1 Introduction 102 5.2 Spectrographic Analysis 104 5.3 Vowels and Diphthongs 105 5.4 Consonants 110 5.4.1 Obstruents 110 5.4.2 Sonorant consonants 118 5.5 Putting it Together 121 5.6 Waveform Analysis 124 5.7 Context 139 5.8 Practical Applications: Some Examples 141 Summary 144 Exercises 147 Chapter 6 Syllables 153 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 Number of Syllables 156 6.3 Sonority 157 6.4 Syllabification 159 6.5 English Syllable Phonotactics 161 6.5.1 Single onsets 162 6.5.2 Double onsets 162 6.5.3 Triple onsets 164 6.5.4 Codas 165 6.5.5 Double codas 165 6.5.6 Triple codas 165 6.6 Written Syllabification 169 6.7 Syllable Weight and Ambisyllabicity 171 6.8 Practical Applications 173 Summary 176 Exercises 176 Chapter 7 Stress and Intonation 179 7.1 Introduction 179 7.2 Noun and Adjective Stress 180 7.3 Verb Stress 183 7.4 Secondary Stress 185 7.5 Affixes 187 7.5.1 Stress‐bearing (attracting) suffixes 188 7.5.2 Stress‐neutral suffixes 188 7.5.3 Stress‐shifting (fixing) suffixes 189 7.6 Stress in Compounds 191 7.7 Differences between American and British English 192 7.8 Intonation 195 7.9 Variations among the Varieties 199 Summary 200 Exercises 201 Chapter 8 Phonology of L1 205 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Pre‐linguistic Stage 205 8.3 Babbling to the first words 206 8.4 First 50 words 207 8.5 Systematic Development and patterns of erroneous productions 207 8.5.1 Syllable Structure Processes 208 8.5.2 Substitution Processes 209 8.5.3 Assimilation Processes 210 8.5.4 Co‐occurrence of Processes 212 8.5.5 Chronology of processes 213 8.6 Optimality Theory 213 8.7 Implications for Clinical treatment 221 Summary 221 Exercises 222 Chapter 9 Structural Factors in Second Language Phonology 225 9.1 Introduction 225 9.2 Spanish–English Mini Contrastive Analysis 229 9.3 Differential Treatment of Mismatches 234 9.3.1 Basic vs. derived context 235 9.3.2 Deflected contrast 236 9.3.3 Hypercontrast 237 9.4 Markedness 237 9.5 Ontogeny Phylogeny Model (OPM) 244 9.6 Optimality Theory (OT) 246 9.7 Perception 249 9.8 Bilingual Phonology 254 9.9 Loan Phonology 258 Summary 260 Appendix A 261 Turkish–English 261 Greek–English 262 Arabic–English 264 Korean–English 266 Portuguese–English 267 Appendix B 269 Exercises 270 Chapter 10 Spelling and Pronunciation 273 10.1 Irregularity of English Spelling 273 10.2 Phoneme–Grapheme Correspondences in English 275 10.2.1 Consonants 275 10.2.2 Vowels 279 10.3 Morphological Basis of English Spelling 283 10.4 American English vs. British English 285 Summary 287 Exercises 288 Recommended Readings 291 Appendix: List of Sound Files 294 Glossary 299 References 307 Index 319