Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources

Preface xi Acknowledgments xv 1 Alternative and Unconventional Energy Sources 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Solar Energy 6 1.3 Wind Energy 11 1.4 Biofuel 13 1.5 Geothermal Energy 15 1.6 Hydro Energy 17 1.7 Ocean Energy 17 1.8 Shale Gas 19 1.9 Nuclear Energy 20 2 Solar Energy 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Sun 24 2.3 Solar Energy 28 2.4 Photovoltaic Cells 30 2.5 Electricity Generation 32 2.6 Solar Radiation for Architecture 36 2.7 Solar Heating 36 2.8 Solar Energy for Agriculture 38 2.9 Solar Energy for Transportation 39 2.10 Impact on the Environment 40 2.11 Advantages of Solar Energy 42 2.12 Global Development of Solar Energy 42 2.13 Conclusion 46 3 Wind Energy 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Transportation 58 3.3 Wind as an Energy Source 58 3.4 Development of Wind Energy 64 3.5 Wind Energy for Public Transport 65 3.6 Development of Wind Energy for the Next Decade 66 3.7 Impact on the Environment 68 3.8 Economic Impact 69 3.9 Performance of a Windmill 70 3.10 Reducing Carbon Emissions 72 4 Geothermal Energy 75 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Structure of the Earth 76 4.3 Plate Tectonics 80 4.4 The Mantle Plume 84 4.5 Geothermal Energy 87 4.6 The Production of Geothermal Power 89 4.7 Present Status of Geothermal Energy Globally 93 4.8 Advantages of Geothermal Energy 93 5 Ocean Energy 97 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 Formation of the Ocean and Plate Tectonics 101 5.3 Generation of Ocean Energy 105 5.4 Wave Energy 106 5.5 Tidal Energy 108 5.6 The Thermal Energy of the Ocean 110 5.7 Marine Energy 111 5.8 Global Status of Ocean Energy 112 6 Biofuel 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Liquid Biofuel 117 6.3 Sources of Biofuel 121 6.4 Biodiesel 122 6.5 Biogas 125 6.6 The Use of Biogas on a Global Scale 127 6.7 Biofuel Contribution 128 6.8 Advantages of Biofuel 129 7 Shale Gas and Shale Oil 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Sandstone 135 7.3 Limestone 137 7.4 Shale 140 7.5 The Formation of Shale 142 7.6 Carbonaceous or Black Shales 145 7.7 Shale Gas 145 7.8 Shale Oil 147 8 Carbonaceous Shale and Diagenesis 149 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2 Different Weathering Processes 151 8.3 Depositional Environment 151 8.4 Physical Properties of Shale 156 8.5 Chemical Properties of Shale 160 8.6 Diagenesis of Shale 161 9 Hydraulic Fracturing 165 9.1 Introduction 165 9.2 Shale Gas Extraction 167 9.3 Preparation for Hydrofracking 172 9.4 Hydrofracking 172 9.5 Status of Hydrofracking 176 10 Impact on the Environment of Alternate Energy Sources 179 10.1 Introduction 179 10.2 Impact of Solar Energy 179 10.3 Impact of Wind Energy 181 10.4 Impact of Geothermal Energy 184 10.5 Impact of Hydro Energy 187 10.6 Impact of Ocean Energy 190 10.7 Impact of Biofuel 193 10.8 Impact of Shale Gas 193 10.9 Conclusion 197 11 The Development of Alternative Energy Sources and the Global Economy 199 11.1 Introduction 199 11.2 Different Energy Sources Over Time 200 11.3 Development of Alternative Energy Sources 202 11.4 Solar Energy 203 11.5 Wind Energy 207 11.6 Geothermal Energy 211 11.7 Ocean Energy 213 11.8 Biofuel 215 11.9 Economic Impact 215 11.10 Environmental Impact 216 References 218 12 Energy Explorations for the Next Decade 219 12.1 Introduction 219 12.2 Growth of Alternative Energy 220 12.3 Development of Energy Appliances 225 12.4 Storage of Renewable Energy 225 12.5 Advantages of Alternative Energy Sources 225 12.6 Economics of Alternative Energy 229 12.7 Conclusion 230 Index 233