Cryptography Apocalypse

Introduction xxi I Quantum Computing Primer 1 1 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 3 What is Quantum Mechanics? 3 Quantum is Counterintuitive 4 Quantum Mechanics is Real 5 The Basic Properties of Quantum Mechanics 8 Photons and Quantum Mechanics 8 Photoelectric Effect 9 Wave-Particle Duality 10 Probability Principle 14 Uncertainty Principle 17 Spin States and Charges 20 Quantum Tunneling 20 Superposition 21 Observer Effect 22 No-Cloning Theorem 24 Spooky Entanglement 24 Decoherence 25 Quantum Examples in Our World Today 27 For Additional Information 28 Summary 29 2 Introduction to Quantum Computers 31 How are Quantum Computers Different? 31 Traditional Computers Use Bits 31 Quantum Computers Use Qubits 33 Quantum Computers are Not Ready for Prime Time Yet 37 Quantum Will Reign Supreme Soon 38 Quantum Computers Improve Qubits Using Error Correction 39 Types of Quantum Computers 44 Superconducting Quantum Computers 44 Quantum Annealing Computers 45 Universal Quantum Computers 47 Topological Quantum Computers 49 Microsoft Majorana Fermion Computers 50 Ion Trap Quantum Computers 51 Quantum Computers in the Cloud 53 Non-U.S. Quantum Computers 53 Components of a Quantum Computer 54 Quantum Software 55 Quantum Stack 55 Quantum National Guidance 56 National Policy Guidance 56 Money Grants and Investments 56 Other Quantum Information Science Besides Computers 57 For More Information 58 Summary 58 3 How Can Quantum Computing Break Today’s Cryptography? 59 Cryptography Basics 59 Encryption 59 Integrity Hashing 72 Cryptographic Uses 73 How Quantum Computers Can Break Cryptography 74 Cutting Time 74 Quantum Algorithms 76 What Quantum Can and Can’t Break 79 Still Theoretical 82 Summary 83 4 When Will the Quantum Crypto Break Happen? 85 It Was Always “10 Years from Now” 85 Quantum Crypto Break Factors 86 Is Quantum Mechanics Real? 86 Are Quantum Computers Real? 87 Is Superposition Real? 87 Is Peter Shor’s Algorithm Real? 88 Do We Have Enough Stable Qubits? 88 Quantum Resources and Competition 89 Do We Have Steady Improvement? 89 Expert Opinions 90 When the Quantum Cyber Break Will Happen 90 Timing Scenarios 90 When Should You Prepare? 93 Breakout Scenarios 95 Stays in the Realm of Nation-States for a Long Time 95 Used by Biggest Companies 97 Mass Proliferation 97 Most Likely Breakout Scenario 97 Summary 98 5 What Will a Post-Quantum World Look Like? 99 Broken Applications 99 Weakened Hashes and Symmetric Ciphers 100 Broken Asymmetric Ciphers 103 Weakened and Broken Random Number Generators 103 Weakened or Broken Dependent Applications 104 Quantum Computing 114 Quantum Computers 114 Quantum Processors 115 Quantum Clouds 115 Quantum Cryptography Will Be Used 116 Quantum Perfect Privacy 116 Quantum Networking Arrives 117 Quantum Applications 117 Better Chemicals and Medicines 118 Better Batteries 118 True Artificial Intelligence 119 Supply Chain Management 120 Quantum Finance 120 Improved Risk Management 120 Quantum Marketing 120 Better Weather Prediction 121 Quantum Money 121 Quantum Simulation 122 More Precise Military and Weapons 122 Quantum Teleportation 122 Summary 126 II Preparing for the Quantum Break 127 6 Quantum-Resistant Cryptography 129 NIST Post-Quantum Contest 129 NIST Security Strength Classifications 132 PKE vs. KEM 133 Formal Indistinguishability Assurances 134 Key and Ciphertext Sizes 135 Types of Post-Quantum Algorithms 136 Code-Based Cryptography 136 Hash-Based Cryptography 137 Lattice-Based Cryptography 138 Multivariate Cryptography 140 Supersingular Elliptic Curve Isogeny Cryptography 140 Zero-Knowledge Proof 141 Symmetric Key Quantum Resistance 142 Quantum-Resistant Asymmetric Encryption Ciphers 143 BIKE 145 Classic McEliece 145 CRYSTALS-Kyber 146 FrodoKEM 146 HQC 147 LAC 148 LEDAcrypt 148 NewHope 149 NTRU 149 NTRU Prime 150 NTS-KEM 150 ROLLO 151 Round5 151 RQC 151 SABER 152 SIKE 152 ThreeBears 153 General Observations on PKE and KEM Key and Ciphertext Sizes 155 Quantum-Resistant Digital Signatures 156 CRYSTALS-Dilithium 156 FALCON 157 GeMSS 158 LUOV 158 MQDSS 159 Picnic 159 qTESLA 160 Rainbow 160 SPHINCS+ 161 General Observations on Signature Key and Sizes 162 Caution Advised 164 A Lack of Standards 164 Performance Concerns 165 Lack of Verified Protection 165 For Additional Information 166 Summary 166 7 Quantum Cryptography 167 Quantum RNGs 168 Random is Not Always Random 168 Why is True Randomness So Important? 170 Quantum-Based RNGs 172 Quantum Hashes and Signatures 177 Quantum Hashes 177 Quantum Digital Signatures 178 Quantum Encryption Ciphers 180 Quantum Key Distribution 181 Summary 188 8 Quantum Networking 189 Quantum Network Components 189 Transmission Media 189 Distance vs. Speed 191 Point-to-Point 192 Trusted Repeaters 193 True Quantum Repeaters 194 Quantum Network Protocols 196 Quantum Network Applications 199 More Secure Networks 199 Quantum Computing Cloud 200 Better Time Syncing 200 Prevent Jamming 201 Quantum Internet 202 Other Quantum Networks 203 For More Information 204 Summary 204 9 Preparing Now 207 Four Major Post-Quantum Mitigation Phases 207 Stage 1: Strengthen Current Solutions 207 Stage 2: Move to Quantum-Resistant Solutions 211 Stage 3: Implement Quantum-Hybrid Solutions 213 Stage 4: Implement Fully Quantum Solutions 214 The Six Major Post-Quantum Mitigation Project Steps 214 Step 1: Educate 215 Step 2: Create a Plan 220 Step 3: Collect Data 225 Step 4: Analyze 226 Step 5: Take Action/Remediate 228 Step 6: Review and Improve 230 Summary 230 Appendix: Additional Quantum Resources 231 Index 239