Agro-Product Processing Technology

Contents Foreword ..........................................................................................................................................xv Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii Author .............................................................................................................................................xix Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................1 1.2 Impotence of Postharvest Technology .................................................................2 1.3 Importance of Postharvest Losses .......................................................................2 1.4 Postharvest Technology .......................................................................................3 References ....................................................................................................................5 Chapter 2 Physical, Thermal, and Chemical Properties of Food and Biological Materials .........7 2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................7 2.2 Physical Properties ..............................................................................................7 2.2.1 Physical Dimensions ................................................................................7 2.2.2 1000-Grain Weight ..................................................................................7 2.2.3 Bulk Density ............................................................................................8 2.2.4 Shrinkage .................................................................................................8 2.2.5 Friction ....................................................................................................9 2.2.5.1 Angle of Internal Friction and Angle of Repose ......................9 2.2.5.2 Coefficient of Friction ............................................................. 10 2.3 Thermal Properties ............................................................................................ 11 2.3.1 Specific Heat .......................................................................................... 11 2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................... 13 2.3.2.1 Theory ..................................................................................... 13 2.3.2.2 Apparatus and Measurement .................................................. 14 2.3.3 Latent Heat of Vaporization .................................................................. 15 2.3.3.1 Determination of Latent Heat of Vaporization ....................... 16 2.3.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient of Product Bed ............................................. 18 2.3.4.1 Dimensional Analysis ............................................................. 19 2.3.4.2 Comparison of Theory and Experiment ................................. 19 2.3.4.3 Theory .....................................................................................20 2.3.4.4 Determination of Volumetric Heat Transfer Coefficient ........22 2.4 Chemical Properties ..........................................................................................24 2.4.1 Starch .....................................................................................................24 2.4.2 Protein ...................................................................................................24 2.4.3 Fat ..........................................................................................................24 2.4.4 Vitamin ..................................................................................................24 Key to Symbols ..........................................................................................................24 Exercises .....................................................................................................................26 References ..................................................................................................................27 Chapter 3 Cleaning, Grading, and Sorting .................................................................................29 3.1 Grade Factor ....................................................................................................29 3.2 Washing ...........................................................................................................30 3.3 Sorting Fruits and Vegetables ..........................................................................30 3.4 Sorting Grain ...................................................................................................30 3.5 Spiral Separator ............................................................................................... 32 3.6 Indent Cylinder Separator ............................................................................... 33 3.7 Color Separator ................................................................................................ 33 3.8 Centrifugal Separation ....................................................................................34 3.8.1 Stokes’ Equation .................................................................................34 3.9 The Centrifuge................................................................................................. 35 3.10 The Cream Separator ....................................................................................... 35 3.11 Cyclone Separator ............................................................................................36 3.12 Machine Vision................................................................................................ 39 3.12.1 Image Acquisition ............................................................................. 39 3.12.1.1 Computer Vision System .................................................. 39 3.12.1.2 Ultrasound and Infrared ...................................................40 3.12.1.3 Tomographic Imaging ......................................................40 3.12.2 Preprocessing ....................................................................................40 3.12.3 Segmentation ..................................................................................... 41 3.12.4 Feature Extraction ............................................................................. 42 3.12.4.1 Color Features .................................................................. 42 3.12.4.2 Morphological Features.................................................... 43 3.12.4.3 Texture Features ............................................................... 43 3.12.5 Classification .....................................................................................44 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 4 Psychrometry .............................................................................................................. 47 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 47 4.2 Psychrometric Terms ....................................................................................... 47 4.2.1 Humidity Ratio ..................................................................................48 4.2.2 Relative Humidity .............................................................................48 4.2.3 Specific Volume ................................................................................49 4.2.4 Vapor Pressure ..................................................................................49 4.2.5 Dry-Bulb Temperature ......................................................................49 4.2.6 Dew Point Temperature.....................................................................49 4.2.7 Wet-Bulb Temperature ......................................................................49 4.2.8 Enthalpy ............................................................................................50 4.2.9 Adiabatic Wet-Bulb Temperature ...................................................... 51 4.2.10 Psychrometric Wet-Bulb Temperature .............................................. 52 4.3 Construction of Psychrometric Chart ..............................................................54 4.4 Use of Psychrometric Chart ............................................................................54 4.4.1 Sensible Heating and Cooling ........................................................... 55 4.4.2 Heating with Humidification ............................................................. 55 4.4.3 Cooling with Humidification ............................................................56 4.4.4 Cooling with Dehumidification.........................................................56 4.4.5 Drying ............................................................................................... 57 4.4.6 Mixing of Airstreams ....................................................................... 59 4.4.7 Heat Addition with Air Mixing .......................................................... 61 4.4.8 Drying with Recirculation .................................................................. 62 Key to Symbols ..........................................................................................................66 Exercises .....................................................................................................................68 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................68 Chapter 5 Drying of Agro Products ............................................................................................69 5.1 Principles of Drying ..........................................................................................69 5.2 Importance of Drying ........................................................................................69 5.3 Moisture Content ............................................................................................... 70 5.3.1 Moisture Content Representation .......................................................... 70 5.3.2 Determination of Moisture Content ...................................................... 72 5.3.2.1 Direct Methods ....................................................................... 73 5.3.2.2 Indirect Methods ..................................................................... 75 5.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content .......................................................................... 76 5.4.1 Determination of Static Equilibrium Moisture Content ........................77 5.4.2 Static Equilibrium Moisture Content Models .......................................77 5.5 Mechanism of Drying........................................................................................82 5.6 Thin-Layer Drying ............................................................................................84 5.6.1 Thin-Layer Drying Equations ...............................................................84 5.6.1.1 Empirical Drying Equations ...................................................84 5.6.1.2 Theoretical Drying Equations ................................................84 5.6.1.3 Semi-Theoretical Drying Equations .......................................85 5.6.2 Drying Rate ...........................................................................................87 5.6.3 Drying Parameters .................................................................................87 5.6.4 Drying Rate Constant and Diffusion Coefficient ..................................88 5.6.4.1 Drying Rate Constant .............................................................88 5.6.5 Half Response Time .............................................................................. 91 5.7 Deep-Bed Drying ..............................................................................................92 5.7.1 Logarithmic Model ................................................................................92 5.7.2 Partial Differential Equation Model ......................................................98 5.7.2.1 Method of Solution ............................................................... 102 5.7.2.2 Comparisons of Simulated and Observed Results ................ 103 5.8 Fluidized Bed Drying Model .......................................................................... 103 5.8.1 Heat Balance Equation ........................................................................ 104 5.8.2 Drying Rate Equation .......................................................................... 104 5.8.3 Mass Balance Equation ....................................................................... 105 5.9 Agro-Product Drying Systems ........................................................................ 106 5.9.1 Solar Drying Systems .......................................................................... 106 5.9.1.1 Solar Dryers .......................................................................... 106 5.9.2 Batch Drying Systems ......................................................................... 110 5.9.2.1 Flatbed Dryer ........................................................................ 111 5.9.3 Continuous Flow Drying Systems ....................................................... 113 5.9.3.1 Cross-Flow Dryer ................................................................. 113 5.9.3.2 Cross-Flow Batch Dryer ....................................................... 113 5.9.3.3 Concurrent Flow Dryer ......................................................... 114 5.9.3.4 Counterflow Dryer ................................................................ 114 5.9.3.5 Mixed-Flow Dryer ................................................................ 116 5.10 Safe Temperature for Drying Grain .............................................................. 117 5.11 Selection of Dryers ........................................................................................ 117 Key to Symbols ........................................................................................................ 118 Exercises ................................................................................................................... 119 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 120 Chapter 6 Parboiling of Rice .................................................................................................... 123 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 123 6.2 Principles of Parboiling .................................................................................124 6.3 Soaking ..........................................................................................................124 6.3.1 Kinetics of Soaking ........................................................................... 126 6.3.2 Finite Element Modeling of Soaking of Water by Paddy .................. 132 6.3.3 Half Response Time .......................................................................... 137 6.3.4 Kinetics of Water Diffusion and Starch Gelatinization .................... 137 6.4 Steaming ........................................................................................................ 140 6.5 Drying ............................................................................................................ 140 6.6 Effect of Parboiling on Milling, Nutritional, and Cooking Qualities of Rice ........................................................................................................... 141 6.7 Parboiling Methods ....................................................................................... 142 6.7.1 Traditional Methods .......................................................................... 142 6.7.1.1 Single Stage Parboiling ...................................................... 142 6.7.1.2 Double Stage Parboiling ..................................................... 142 6.7.2 Modern Methods ............................................................................... 142 6.7.2.1 CFTRI (Central Food Technological Research Industries) Method ............................................................. 143 6.7.2.2 Jadavpur University Method .............................................. 143 6.7.2.3 Malek Process .................................................................... 143 6.7.2.4 Schule Process .................................................................... 143 6.7.2.5 Crystal Rice Process .......................................................... 144 6.7.2.6 Rice Conversion Process .................................................... 144 6.7.2.7 Avorio Process .................................................................... 144 6.7.3 Estimation of Heat Required for Parboiling ...................................... 144 6.7.3.1 Soaking Operation.............................................................. 144 6.7.3.2 Steaming Operation............................................................ 144 6.7.3.3 Drying Operation ............................................................... 145 Exercises ................................................................................................................... 159 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 160 Chapter 7 Milling of Rice and Wheat ....................................................................................... 163 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 163 7.2 Rice Milling .................................................................................................. 163 7.3 Traditional Methods ...................................................................................... 163 7.3.1 Home Pounding ................................................................................. 163 7.3.2 Huller Mills ....................................................................................... 164 7.3.3 Sheller Mills ...................................................................................... 164 7.3.4 Rubber Roll Sheller Mills .................................................................. 164 7.4 The Modern Rice Milling Process ................................................................ 165 7.5 Modern Rice Milling Machinery .................................................................... 167 7.5.1 Paddy Cleaner ...................................................................................... 167 7.5.2 Stoner ................................................................................................... 167 7.5.3 Rubber Roll Sheller ............................................................................. 167 7.5.4 Paddy Separator ................................................................................... 169 7.5.5 Whitening or Polishing........................................................................ 171 7.5.5.1 Cone-Type Polisher ............................................................... 171 7.5.5.2 Horizontal Abrasive-Type Polisher ....................................... 172 7.5.5.3 Friction-Type Polisher ........................................................... 172 7.5.6 Bran and Polished Rice Separator ....................................................... 173 7.5.7 Rice Grader ......................................................................................... 173 7.5.8 Rice Mixing ......................................................................................... 174 7.6 Wheat Milling ................................................................................................. 174 7.6.1 Conditioning/Hydrothermal Treatment ............................................... 174 7.6.2 Milling ................................................................................................. 174 7.6.3 Storage of Finished Products ............................................................... 175 7.7 Size Characteristics ......................................................................................... 175 7.7.1 Sieve ..................................................................................................... 175 7.7.2 Fineness Modulus ................................................................................ 176 7.7.3 Energy Requirements .......................................................................... 177 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 179 Chapter 8 By-Product Utilization ............................................................................................. 181 8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 181 8.2 Fuels and Combustion ..................................................................................... 181 8.2.1 Furnaces .............................................................................................. 182 8.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification ............................................................................... 183 8.3.1 Pyrolysis (Destructive Distillation) and Gasification .......................... 183 8.3.2 Types of Gasifiers ................................................................................ 184 8.3.2.1 Countercurrent Moving Bed Gasifiers .................................. 185 8.3.2.2 Concurrent Moving Bed Gasifiers ........................................ 185 8.3.2.3 Crosscurrent Moving Bed Gasifiers ..................................... 185 8.3.2.4 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers ........................................................ 185 8.3.3 Gasification Process ............................................................................ 185 8.3.3.1 Oxidation .............................................................................. 186 8.3.3.2 Reduction .............................................................................. 186 8.3.3.3 Drying ................................................................................... 186 8.3.4 Gasifier Units ....................................................................................... 186 8.4 Liquefaction ..................................................................................................... 187 8.5 Hydrolysis Followed by Fermentation ............................................................. 189 8.6 Biochar Production and Utilization ................................................................. 190 8.6.1 Biochar Carbonizer ............................................................................. 190 8.6.2 Types of Carbonizers ........................................................................... 191 8.6.2.1 Application............................................................................ 192 8.7 Rice Husk Pelletizing and Briquetting ............................................................ 192 8.7.1 Need for Briquetting ............................................................................ 193 8.7.2 Principle and Technology .................................................................... 193 8.7.3 Types of Briquetting Machines ....................................................... 193 8.7.3.1 High- and Medium-Pressure Compaction .......................194 8.7.3.2 Screw Press ...................................................................... 194 8.7.3.3 Piston Press ...................................................................... 195 8.7.3.4 Low-Pressure Compaction ............................................... 195 8.7.3.5 Hand-Molded Briquettes .................................................. 195 8.7.4 Applications ..................................................................................... 195 8.7.5 Limitations....................................................................................... 196 8.7.6 Future Prospective ........................................................................... 196 8.8 Biogas Digesters ............................................................................................ 196 8.8.1 Anaerobic Digestion Process ........................................................... 197 8.8.2 Indian-Type Biogas Digester ........................................................... 197 8.8.3 The Chinese Biogas Digester .......................................................... 198 8.8.4 Digester Sizing ................................................................................ 199 8.9 Composting ....................................................................................................202 8.9.1 Process of Composting ....................................................................203 8.9.2 Mixing of Materials in the Compost ...............................................203 8.9.3 Starting a Composter .......................................................................204 8.9.4 Operating a Compost .......................................................................204 8.9.5 Simple Thermophile Composting Procedure ..................................204 8.9.6 Types of Composters .......................................................................205 8.10 Utilization of Rice Bran – Stabilizer Design and Oil Extraction ..................207 8.11 Bran – Stabilizer Design ...............................................................................207 8.12 Oil Extraction ................................................................................................207 8.12.1 Batch Extraction Method .................................................................208 Bibliography .............................................................................................................208 Chapter 9 Storage of Agro Products .........................................................................................209 9.1 Principles of Storage ......................................................................................209 9.2 Interactions of Physical, Chemical, and Biological Variables in the Deterioration of Stored Grains ...................................................................... 211 9.3 Computer Simulation Modeling for Stored Grain Pest Management ........... 212 9.4 Grain Storage Systems .................................................................................. 213 9.4.1 Traditional Storage Systems ............................................................ 213 9.4.2 Modern Storage Systems ................................................................. 214 9.4.2.1 Bagged Storage System .................................................... 214 9.4.2.2 Silo Storage System ......................................................... 215 9.4.2.3 Airtight Grain Storage ..................................................... 216 9.4.2.4 Aerated Storage System ................................................... 218 9.4.2.5 Low-Temperature Storage System (Grain Chilling by Refrigeration) .............................................................. 221 9.4.2.6 Controlled Atmosphere Storage Systems ........................224 9.4.2.7 Damp Grain Storage System with Chemicals .................226 9.5 Design of Grain Storages...............................................................................228 9.5.1 Structural Requirements ..................................................................228 9.5.2 Janssen’s Equation ...........................................................................229 9.5.3 Rankine’s Equation.......................................................................... 232 9.5.4 Airy’s Equation ................................................................................ 233 9.5.5 Construction Materials ....................................................................236 Key to Symbols ........................................................................................................240 Exercises ................................................................................................................... 241 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 241 Chapter 10 Heating and Cooling of Agro Products ....................................................................245 10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................245 10.2 Heat Conduction ............................................................................................246 10.2.1 The Differential Equation of Heat Conduction in Cartesian and Cylindrical Coordinate Systems ...............................................246 10.2.1.1 The Differential Equation of Heat Conduction in Cartesian Coordinate System ..........246 10.2.1.2 The Differential Equation of Heat Conduction in Cylindrical Coordinate System .......248 10.2.2 The Composite Wall ........................................................................249 10.2.3 Cylinder and Sphere ......................................................................... 251 10.3 Convection ..................................................................................................... 252 10.3.1 Forced Convection ........................................................................... 252 10.3.2 Natural or Free Convection .............................................................. 255 10.3.3 Heat Exchangers ..............................................................................256 10.4 Radiation ........................................................................................................ 261 10.4.1 Radiation Intensity and Shape Factor ..............................................263 10.4.2 Radiation Exchange between Black Surfaces ..................................264 10.4.3 Heat Exchange by Radiation between Gray Surfaces......................265 10.5 Cooling ........................................................................................................... 267 10.5.1 Cooling Rate .................................................................................... 267 10.6 Freezing .........................................................................................................269 10.6.1 Freezing Point Depression ...............................................................269 10.7 Heating ........................................................................................................... 271 10.7.1 Boiling-Point Elevation .................................................................... 272 Key to Symbols ....................................................................................................... 275 Exercises ................................................................................................................. 276 Bibliography ............................................................................................................277 Chapter 11 Refrigeration and Cold Storage ................................................................................ 279 11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 279 11.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle .......................................................280 11.3 Pressure–Enthalpy (p-h) Chart ......................................................................280 11.3.1 Unit of Refrigeration ........................................................................ 281 11.4 Refrigerants .................................................................................................... 281 11.4.1 Desirable Characteristics of Refrigerants ........................................ 281 11.5 Construction of Psychrometric Chart ............................................................287 11.6 Moisture Control and Storage of Vegetables Crops ....................................... 291 11.6.1 Potatoes ............................................................................................ 291 11.6.1.1 Adequate Volume ............................................................. 291 11.6.1.2 Adequate Strength ........................................................... 291 11.6.1.3 Storage Environment .......................................................292 11.6.1.4 Suberization Period ..........................................................292 11.6.1.5 Short-Term Storage ..........................................................292 11.6.1.6 Long-Term Storage ..........................................................292 11.7 Cooling Requirement .....................................................................................293 Exercises ...................................................................................................................297 Bibliography .............................................................................................................298 Chapter 12 Separation .................................................................................................................299 12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................299 12.2 Contact Equilibrium Process .........................................................................299 12.2.1 Absorption........................................................................................299 12.2.2 Extraction .........................................................................................300 12.2.2.1 Rate of Extraction ............................................................300 12.2.2.2 Leaching .......................................................................... 301 12.2.3 Distillation .......................................................................................303 12.2.3.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium ...............................................303 12.2.3.2 Flash Vaporization ...........................................................305 12.2.3.3 Batch Distillation .............................................................306 12.2.3.4 Fractionation ....................................................................307 12.2.3.5 Steam Distillation ............................................................ 311 12.3 Mechanical Separation Process ..................................................................... 312 12.3.1 Filtration ........................................................................................... 312 12.3.2 Sedimentation .................................................................................. 314 12.3.2.1 Sedimentation for Low Concentration Suspensions .......... 314 12.3.2.2 Sedimentation for High Concentration Suspensions ......... 315 12.3.3 Centrifugation .................................................................................. 316 12.3.3.1 Rate Separation ................................................................ 316 12.3.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Separation ................................................ 317 12.3.3.3 Particle Gas Separation ................................................... 318 Exercises ................................................................................................................... 319 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 319 Chapter 13 Materials Handling and Conveying ......................................................................... 321 13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 321 13.2 Principles of Materials Handling ................................................................... 322 13.3 Classification of Materials Handling Equipment ........................................... 322 13.4 Belt Conveyors ............................................................................................... 323 13.4.1 The Capacity of the Conveyor Belt Needed..................................... 325 13.4.2 Belt Width ........................................................................................ 325 13.4.3 Belt Speed ........................................................................................ 326 13.4.4 Belt Tension ...................................................................................... 326 13.4.5 Selection of Belt Carcass ................................................................. 327 13.4.6 Selection of Driving and Other Pulleys ........................................... 327 13.4.7 Motor Power ..................................................................................... 327 13.4.8 Selection of Idlers ............................................................................ 328 13.5 Chain Conveyors ............................................................................................ 329 13.5.1 Trolley Chain Conveyor ................................................................... 329 13.5.2 Scraper Chain Conveyor .................................................................. 330 13.5.3 Apron Chain Conveyor .................................................................... 330 13.6 Screw Conveyors ......................................................................................... 331 13.6.1 Power Requirement for Screw Conveyors ..................................... 332 13.7 Bucket Conveyors ........................................................................................ 333 13.8 Pneumatic Conveyors .................................................................................. 334 13.9 Hydraulic Conveyors ................................................................................... 337 13.10 Gravity Conveyors ....................................................................................... 338 13.11 Cranes.......................................................................................................... 338 13.12 Lift and Carrying Trucks and Cart ............................................................. 338 13.13 Robotic Handling System ........................................................................... 338 Exercises ...................................................................................................................348 Bibliography .............................................................................................................349 Chapter 14 Process Dynamics and Control ................................................................................ 351 14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 351 14.2 Feedback Control Systems .......................................................................... 351 14.3 Block Diagrams ........................................................................................... 351 14.4 Dynamic Behavior of First- and Second-Order Systems ............................ 352 14.4.1 First-Order System ........................................................................ 352 14.4.2 Step Input ....................................................................................... 353 14.4.3 Ramp Input .................................................................................... 354 14.4.4 Sinusoidal Input ............................................................................. 354 14.4.5 Second-Order System .................................................................... 355 14.5 The Laplace Transform ............................................................................... 356 14.6 Transfer Function ........................................................................................ 358 14.6.1 Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion ................................................ 359 14.7 Transient Response...................................................................................... 361 14.7.1 Performance of Second-Order System .......................................... 361 14.7.2 Performance Indices ...................................................................... 362 14.8 Frequency Response .................................................................................... 362 14.8.1 Bode Plot ....................................................................................... 363 14.8.1.1 First-Order Process K (τs+1) ............................................... 363 14.8.1.2 Integrating Process G(s) Ks = ........................................364 14.8.1.3 Second-Order Process G(s) K 2s2 2 s 1 = + □ + ........................364 14.8.1.4 Process Zero s +1 ........................................................365 14.8.1.5 Time Delay e−j- ...........................................................366 14.8.1.6 Bode Stability Criterion ................................................ 367 14.8.1.7 Gain Margin and Phase Margin ................................... 367 14.8.2 Nyquist Criterion ...........................................................................368 14.8.2.1 Gain Margin and Phase Margin ...................................369 14.9 Frequency Response of Controllers ............................................................369 14.9.1 Proportional Controller .................................................................369 14.9.2 Proportional–Integral Controller ...................................................369 14.9.3 Ideal Proportional–Derivative Controller...................................... 370 14.9.4 Proportional–Derivative Controller with Filter ............................. 370 14.9.5 Parallel PID Controller .................................................................. 370 14.9.6 Series PID Controller .................................................................... 371 14.9.7 Series PID Controller with a Derivative Filter .............................. 371 Exercises ................................................................................................................... 373 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 374 Chapter 15 Emerging Technologies ............................................................................................ 375 15.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 375 15.2 Neural Network Modeling ............................................................................. 375 15.2.1 Structure of ANN Model of a Dryer ................................................ 376 15.2.2 Training of ANN Model .................................................................. 377 15.3 Energy and Exergy Analysis of Drying Process ........................................... 378 15.3.1 Drying Efficiency ............................................................................. 378 15.3.2 Exergy Analysis through the Analysis of Second Law of Thermodynamics ......................................................................... 378 15.3.3 Exergy Calculation for Dryer ........................................................... 379 15.4 Finite Element Modeling of Single Kernel ....................................................380 15.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Modeling ......................................... 385 15.5.1 CFD Model Formulation ................................................................. 385 15.5.1.1 Continuity Equation ........................................................386 15.5.1.2 Momentum Conservation Equations ............................... 386 15.5.1.3 Energy Conservation Equation ........................................ 386 15.5.1.4 User-Defined Function .....................................................386 15.5.2 CFD Analysis ................................................................................... 387 15.5.2.1 Preprocessing ................................................................... 387 15.5.2.2 Processing ........................................................................ 388 15.5.2.3 Post-processing ................................................................ 388 15.6 Optimal Design Using Genetic Algorithm ....................................................390 15.6.1 Optimal Design of Agro-Product Processing Systems ....................390 15.6.2 Genetic Algorithm ...........................................................................390 15.6.2.1 Basic Principles of Genetic Algorithm ............................ 391 15.6.2.2 Fitness Function ............................................................... 391 15.6.2.3 Genetic Algorithm Procedure for Optimal Drying Parameters ........................................................... 391 Key to Symbols ........................................................................................................ 393 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 394 Index ..............................................................................................................................................397